5 c 



'l THE LEGAL STATUS 



RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 



UNITED STATES 



With Special Reference to the Methods Employed in 

Extending State Aid to Secondary Education 

in Rural Communities 



Edwin R. Snyder 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the 
Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 



New York City 
1909 



^ 



^sonian Ins 



DEC 9 1009 



THE LEGAL STATUS 



/ 



RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 



UNITED STATES 



With Special Reference to the Methods Employed in 

Extending State Aid to Secondary Education 

in Rural Communities 



^ 



Edwin Rl Snyder 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the 
Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 



New York City 
1909 



v v 






Copyright, 1909, 
By EDWIN R. SNYDER 



PBESa OF 

BRANDOW PRINTING COMPANY 

ALBANY, N. T. 



CONTENTS 

The figures given below refer to pages. 



CHAPTER I 

THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN ITS SOLUTION 

The purpose of the work. The problems involved. The methods 
employed 3-5. 

- ' CHAPTER II 

THE EXTENSION OF HIGH SCHOOL PRIVILEGES A PUBLIC NECESSITY 

The general status of education in the United States. The break in our 
system at the end of the elementary school is not fundamental. 
A more thorough training necessary to meet the demands of the 
times. The influence of the high school upon social and educa- 
tional conditions in rural communities. The rural high school 
as an institution to prepare teachers 6-13. 

CHAPTER III 

STATE AID TO RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS A PUBLIC NEED AND DUTY 

The state the most comprehensive unit for the administration and sup- 
port of public education. One function of the state to raise the 
general standard of intelligence. The state can aid elementary 
education by securing establishment of high schools. State may 
only hinder community class differentiation through education. 
Secondary education necessary to improve agricultural conditions. 
A liberal training necessary for country youth. State only can 
equalize secondary educational opportunities. A wider field for 
the selection of leadership essential. State aid necessary to the 
poorer districts. The support of secondary and higher education 
has always been a state policy. Education cannot be pauperized. 
Wealth accumulated in certain regions may represent state resources 
14-25- 

CHAPTER IV 

UNITS OF ORGANIZATION AND COURSES OF STUDY FOR RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 

The evolution of the district high school. The union of districts, — 
advantages of same. The township unit of organization. The 
union of townships. The county unit of organization. Academies 
as secondary schools. Normal schools as secondary institutions. 
Courses of study for rural high schools, — types of, in Florida, Wis- 
consin, and Massachusetts 26-36. 



iv Contents 

CHAPTER V 

STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

Maine, — 37-40: Early aid to high schools, 37. Early status of high 
schools, 38. Law suspended and reinstated, 38. Later legislation 
and present legal status, 38. Growth and present status of high 
schools, 39. Special subsidies to academies, 40. 

Wisconsin, — 41-49: Early aid to high schools, 41. Provision for 
supervision, 42. Aid to township high schools, 42. Aid to manual 
training departments, 43. Change of law in aid of township high 
schools, 44. Local community may provide tuition, 44. Provision 
for aid to graded schools, 45. Consolidation and free transporta- 
tion provided for, 47. State aid to county agricultural schools, 47. 
Development and status of rural high schools, 48. 

Minnesota, — 49-55: Early aid to high schools, 49. Inspection pro- 
vided for, 50. Aid to graded schools, 52. Increases in amount of 
subsidy, 54. Special aid for normal departments, 55. Consolida- 
tion and free transportation provided for, 55. 

CHAPTER VI 

STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

North Dakota, — 56-58: Classification of high schools, 56. State aid 
to high schools, 56. Present status of rural high schools, 57. 

Pennsylvania, — 58-60: Aid to high schools, 58. Defects of the act, 
59. Rural high school statistics, 59. 

Florida, — 60-61: State aid to high schools, 60. Influence of act, 61. 
Consolidation and transportation, 61. 

Massachusetts, — 61-66: Compulsory local support, 61. Historical 
development of high schools and high school legislation, 62-64. 
State aid to rural secondary education by subsidy and reimbursed 
tuitions, 65. Only two teacher schools may receive aid, 65. Develop- 
ment and status of secondary education, 66. 

CHAPTER VII 

STATES THAT USE OTHER THAN THE DIRECT SUBSIDY PLAN IN 
THE DISTRIBUTION OF STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

California, — 67-73: Early legislation and growth of high schools, 67. 
The part that the normal schools have played in secondary educa- 
tion, 68. "The grammar school course," and state aid to the same, 
69. Provision for establishment of county high schools, 70. Growth 
of high schools, 1885 to 1902, 70. Constitutional change enabling 
state to aid secondary education, 70. State aid to high schools, 70. 
Result of act, 73. 

New York, — 73-78: State aid to union free high schools, 74. The 
literature fund and its apportionment, 74. Aid from the common 
school fund, 74. State provides tuition, 75. Special aid for normal 
departments, 75. History of development of literature fund, 75 



Contents v 

Development of high schools, 76. Apportionment of funds to 
secondary schools, 76. Apportionment for free tuition, 78. 

Rhode Island, — 78-79: State aid to secondary education, 78. Con- 
solidation and transportation of pupils, 79. 

Washington, — 79-80 : Special state aid to high schools, 79. Some 
effects of the act, 80. 

CHAPTER VIII 

STATES THAT DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY PAY THE TUITION OF 
CERTAIN HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS 

New Hampshire, — 81-82 : The state educational fund and its dis- 
tribution, 81. The provision for reimbursing tuitions, 82. 

Connecticut, — 82-85: The provision for reimbursing tuitions, 82-83. 
Reimbursed free transportation, 83. Aid to libraries, 83. Statistics 
of tuitions reimbursed, 84. Status of secondary education, 84. 

Delaware, — 85 : Aid to all schools upon teacher basis. The provision 
for state payment of tuitions. 

Vermont, — 86-88 : Summary of secondary educational opportunities 
offered, 86. The reimbursement of tuitions, 87. Tuition statis- 
tics, 87. 

CHAPTER IX 

STATES THAT LEGALIZE THE LOCAL PAYMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TUITION 

Indiana, — 89-91 : History of township high schools, 89. Free tuition, 

consolidation and free transportation, 90. Provision for county 

high schools, 90. High school statistics, 91. 
Ohio, — 91-94: History of township high schools, 91. Free tuition, 

92. Free transportation, 93. Development and status of high 

schools, 93. The state fund, 94. 
Kansas, — 94-95: County high schools, 94. Free tuition in counties, 

95. Status of county high schools, 95. 
Nebraska, — 96-98: Free tuition, 96. Provision for joint district high 

schools, 97. State aid to manual training department, 97. Status 

of secondary education, 98. 
Michigan, — 98-100: Union or graded schools, 98. Free tuition, 99. 

State aid to normal training schools, 100. County industrial schools, 

100. 
Idaho, — 100. 
Oregon, — 100-10 1. 
Utah, — 101. 

CHAPTER X 

Illinois, — 102-105: Township high schools, 102. School funds, 103, 
Scholarships in normal schools, 104. Status of high schools, 105. 

Iowa, — 105,106: Legal status, condition of secondary education, 
township high schools, consolidation and transportation. 

New Jersey, — 106-109: No special provision for high schools, 106. 
Early development of system, 106. The state fund and its dis- 
tribution, 107. County compelled to provide high schools, 109. 



vi Contents 

Colorado, — 109-110: Legal status, school funds, status in state. 

South Dakota, — iio-ni. 

Wyoming, — 111. 

Arizona, — in. 

Missouri, — 111-112: Part of teacher's fund may be applied to sec- 
ondary education. Classification and inspection. Consolidation. 
Present status. 

Montana, — n 2-1 13. 

Nevada, — 113. 

New Mexico, — 113. 

CHAPTER XI 

the present legal status of high schools in the south 
Maryland, — n 4-1 16: County high schools. State aid to manual 

training and industrial schools. State aid to high schools giving 

commercial courses. Scholarships. Counties receiving aid upon 

account of manual and industrial courses. 
Virginia, — 116-117: State aid. Inspection. Aid for normal training 

departments. Aid for industrial education. 
North Carolina, — n 7-1 18: State aid to high schools. Tuitions 

reimbursed. 
South Carolina, — 1 18-120: State aid to high schools. Inspection and 

classification. Free tuition. Effect of act. 
Alabama, — 120-12 1: State aid to county high schools. 
Tennessee, — 121-122: County high schools. Free tuition. 
Texas, — 122: High schools a part of general system. 
West Virginia, — 122: High schools supported locally. 
Kentucky, — 122-123: The graded schools. 
Georgia, — 123: Locally supported. 
Louisiana, — 123: Locally supported. 
Mississippi, — 123. 

Arkansas, — 123 : No special provision. 
Oklahoma, — 123 : District and county. 

CHAPTER XII 
some high school statistics and their probable meaning 

Purpose, source, reliability, and arrangement of statistics, 124-127. 

Maine, Massachusetts and New Jersey, 128-129. 

California, Colorado and Washington, 130-131. 

Connecticut, Vermont, and New Hampshire, 132-133. Michigan, Wis- 
consin and Minnesota, 134-135. Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, 136- 
137. Iowa, Missouri and Texas, 138-139. Kansas, Nebraska and 
Rhode Island, 1 40-141. 

Limiting factors that enter into growth of high schools and high school 
opportunities, 142-144. Steps in the evolution of the high school, 
145-147. 

Interpretation and graphic presentation of statistics for: Maine, 147; 
Massachusetts, 148; New Jersey, 151; California, 154; Colorado, 156; 



Contents vii 

Washington, 158; Connecticut, 161; Vermont, 163; New Hamp- 
shire, 166; Michigan, 168; Wisconsin, 170; Minnesota, 171; Ohio, 
174; Indiana, 176; Illinois, 178; Iowa, 179; Missouri, 181; Texas, 
183; Kansas, 184; Nebraska, 186; Rhode Island, 188. 
The general development of secondary education in above states, 188. 
Statistical summary for twenty states, 191. Comparison of states 
that provided subsidies with those that provided no state aid, 190. 
Comparison of states that reimbursed tuitions with others, 193. 
Graphic presentation of development of secondary education in 
the two groups, 194. 

CHAPTER XIII 

STATE AID BY GRANTING SUBSIDIES AND BY REIMBURSING TUITIONS 

Purpose of the chapter. The Massachusetts act. A local school has 
some advantages. These may be overcome by financial interests. 
Detailed analysis of Table I. Statistics, 100-10 1. Present law 
granting state subsidy only partly affective. Inequalities worked 
by tuition law. Comparison of averages in two tables. Comparison 
with sixteen towns. Comparison with seven towns. Comparison 
with three towns. Condition not a recent one. General proposi- 
tions demonstrated by statistics for Massachusetts. Does state 
desire to encourage the smaller high school? 

Legal provision for reimbursement of tuition and transportation expen- 
ditures in Connecticut. Aim of presentation of statistics. Basis 
of assembling statistics. Statistics of high schools expending less 
than $1,500 for maintenance. Statistics of fourteen towns that 
sent twenty or more pupils to non-local schools. Comparison of 
statistics in large and small groups, and in individual cases. Sta- 
tistics prove that the law has worked injustice and has only been 
partially effective 197-210. 

CHAPTER XIV 

THE VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN AID OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN 
RURAL COMMUNITIES 

General methods employed. State aid in the following states: Min- 
nesota, California, Wisconsin, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Wash- 
ington, Florida, Virginia, South Carolina, Alabama, New Hampshire, 
Vermont, Delaware, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New York, 
Rhode Island, North Carolina. The results of the working of the 
different schemes. The aim of the state in providing aid. A local 
school will increase the number of secondary pupils 60 to 75 per 
cent. The conditions under which each scheme of providing state 
aid should be put into operation. The factors which must be taken 
into consideration in apportioning state aid. A tentative scheme 
for the distribution of state aid to secondary education in rural 
communities 211-225. 



CHAPTER 

THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN ITS 
SOLUTION 

The main purpose of this work is to present the development 
and the present legal status of rural high schools in the United 
States, and the influence of legislation upon the number and 
location of new schools, particularly in so far as the same may 
have been influenced by the extension of state aid in certain of 
the commonwealths. The first problem of the study was to estab- 
lish the legal status of these schools in each of the various states 
of the Union. Since a part of the task set was to study their 
development in relation to the laws providing for their establish- 
ment and maintenance, especially where such maintenance was 
partially provided for by special state aid, it became necessary 
to trace the historical development of such legislation as bore 
directly or indirectly upon the subject. The second problem 
was to establish the workings and results of these laws as inter- 
preted and applied by the various educational authorities of these 
states. The third problem was to measure the development of 
the rural high schools in each of the states, as influenced by the 
legal status provided at the various periods of this development. 
The fourth problem was to measure the relative influence of 
the different methods of extending state aid, employed by each 
of the states, and to compare the results obtained by partial 
state, versus entire local support. The final problem was to 
evolve from the various schemes already employed, a plan based 
upon actual experience whereby state aid for the support of 
high schools might be most equitably and efficiently extended to 
the poorer districts of a given commonwealth. 

In working up the historical development of the legislation, 
all available school laws for each state were consulted, and where 
gaps in the series occurred the successive state reports were 
used to discover, if possible, any intervening legislative acts 
bearing upon the problem. In case there was evidence of such 
legislation having occurred, and no adequate presentation was 
given in these reports, the Session Laws and Political Codes of 
these states were consulted. The usual method pursued was that 



4 The Problem and the Method Employed in its Solution 

of first consulting the latest School Laws available and then 
running back over the series noting the dates of any changes 
occurring which in any way affected the present legal status of 
these schools. All acts bearing indirectly as well as those bearing 
directly upon the subject were noted and are presented in the 
main body of the study. 1 

After the development of the legislation had been secured, 
each of the state reports for the whole period was carefully 
worked over in order to establish where possible the interpre- 
tation of these laws, their immediate and particular results, their 
general influence upon the establishment and refinement of rural 
high schools, and their effect upon the enrollment of rural secon- 
dary pupils in the state. In many cases, and particularly in the 
earlier development of these schools, it was not possible to sepa- 
rate the purely rural from the city items and, as a result, it was 
sometimes necessary to report them for the state as a whole. 
A clear cut division here would have certainly been desirable, 
but such a separation is not in all matters entirely essential, 
since after each of the cities has established a high school any 
additional schools established will, upon the whole, measure the 
extension of secondary educational opportunities in the state. 

The second part of the formal presentation of the study 2 con- 
sists of a series of statistics and their interpretation ; these figures 
show the status and development of city and rural high schools 
in twenty states, for the years 1897 to 1906 inclusive. In addi- 
tion to the above they show in some instances the influence of 
special acts of legislation as presented elsewhere in the study. 
They also show very clearly the relative influence of partial 
state aid, and entire local support, upon the status and develop- 
ment of secondary education in the country. The last section 
of this part of the work is a statistical study showing the com- 
parative workings of the laws providing state aid to secondary 
education in Massachusetts and Connecticut. 

The last chapter presents the views of the writer, largely based 
upon the formal study, in regard to the most adequate and just 
methods of equalizing the burdens of secondary education in 
the state. 



Chapters V. to XI. inclusive 
Chapters XII. and XIII. 



The Problem and the Method Employed in its Solution 5 

In reading over the great mass of material presented in the 
various reports of the state superintendents upon the subject of 
rural high schools much material was accumulated upon the theo- 
retic arguments advanced for and against the extension of 
secondary educational opportunities in the various states, and 
particularly upon the question as to what attitude the state 
should take in regard to the matter of extending aid to the 
poorer communities. This material was so widely scattered how- 
ever, and the arguments were so often repeated that any organiz- 
ation of the material required its complete recasting. In addition 
to the above much material was presented relating to the influence 
of the establishment of rural high schools in certain communities 
and particularly as they affected the lower schools. This matter 
was of course usually presented in the form of arbitrary state- 
ments sometimes with and sometimes without the facts upon 
which they were based. These statements, however, came, as 
a rule, from men actually familiar with the situation presented, 
and are therefore entitled to a large amount of consideration. All 
of the above matter has been recast and combined with certain 
personal observations and opinions, and the whole is presented in 
the two following chapters. So far as the personal observations 
are concerned they are based largely upon impressions received 
in handling the great mass of material to be found in the state 
reports. It is to be admitted that many statements made are still 
largely matters of opinion, but they are presented with a full 
consciousness of their character. The main excuse, if such is 
necessary, for presenting this matter is, that new high schools 
are largely established not upon the evidence of scientific fact, 
but rather upon a consensus of opinion arrived at by public 
discussion of the question. In addition to the above, the question 
of the units of organization usually adopted in the establishment 
and maintenance of rural high schools, together with a short 
discussion of the curriculum generally found in them, is taken 
up. No attempt is made in this chapter to go into the details 
of administration in regard to either of the topics presented. 
Many other important topics such as supervision and inspection 
and the training and examination of teachers have been for the 
want of time almost entirely neglected. 



CHAPTER II 

THE EXTENSION OF HIGH SCHOOL PRIVILEGES A PUBLIC 

NECESSITY 

The battle for free public high schools has, in large part, been 
fought and won in this country, though the extension of such 
schools has not as yet been sufficient to enable all of the youth 
of the land to take advantage of such opportunities as they may 
offer. The evidence of this victory is to be found in the fact 
that all of the cities of the country, and most of the towns with 
a population to exceed two thousand five hundred inhabitants, 
together with many smaller towns, villages, and thickly settled 
rural districts have voluntarily taxed themselves to support free 
public high schools. The most notable exception to this is to 
be found in the South. 1 

Since any extension of our system of secondary schools en- 
tails to a greater or less degree, the same argumentative struggle 
that every community, enjoying these privileges, has passed 
through, it will be necessary to take up and briefly discuss the 
advantages underlying the further extension of the system to 
include a larger proportion of the rural districts. It is probably 
safe to say that there are no valid theoretic reasons why the 
educational opportunities, in a democracy, should not be extended 
indefinitely. The only valid argument that may be raised against 
such an extension of the system is that of inability upon the part 
of the people to support this type of education. 

The question as to whether each child should have an opportu- 
nity to attend an elementary school has been settled for all time 
in all regions in this country. There is not a state or territory 
in the Union that does not either partly or wholly support such 
a system by state or local taxation or by both. The standard of 
quantity in opportunity has been almost universally advanced to 
what is commonly known as the end of the grammar school, 
and most of the states have advanced this standard until it em- 
braces the high school. Many have included the university, but 
a number of these have failed as yet to make adequate provision 



See Chapter XL 



Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity 7 

for a complete connecting link between these two institutions. 
It may be maintained with some degree of truth that the elemen- 
tary school exists upon the whole, for the purpose of educating 
the masses, but the university certainly exists primarily for the 
purpose of preparing leaders. This latter being the case it is 
difficult to see the logic that would permit the state to fail to 
provide the natural feeder to this higher institution. However 
this may be, most of the states have approached the problem 
from this end. Massachusetts, in her educational history, illus- 
trates this best, though many of the Western States have in recent 
years far surpassed her in the fostering and support of higher 
education. In regard to secondary education she has until re- 
cently largely confined herself to compelling the local establish- 
ment and support of such institutions. On the other hand Minne- 
sota has for many years given to each and every one of her 
numerous high schools, large and small alike, a large bonus 
direct from her state treasury. 

There is no good logical reason why the universal support of 
free education should cease at the end of our grammar schools. 
The break in the system at this point is a mere incident of devel- 
opment and is not based upon any forethought. This practice 
of ending our so-called elementary course of education at the 
end of eight years is the result of the meeting of the two ends 
of the system. 

As the professional schools have developed, due to a demand 
for higher training in the professions, they have forced them- 
selves into the institutions of higher learning, until they now 
require at least two years of the time that was at one time de- 
voted exclusively to college work. Thus approximately two 
years of the old college course has been forced out of the curricu- 
lum and this material combined with the upper end of the 
grammar school of colonial days, in a rough way, constitutes 
the material that largely makes up the curriculum of our sec- 
ondary schools of to-day. To this must be added, however, a 
number of scientific subjects that have found their place more 
recently. Our present system of elementary schools, in so far 
as the curriculum is concerned, is constituted of the remnants 
of these old grammar schools and the primary schools of the 
colonial period. To this material we have in all of the above 



8 Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity 

institutions added much in the way of matter that is patent to 
our new civilization and its demands. The two higher divisions 
of our system have met the problem of an overcrowded curricu- 
lum by dividing the material into elective courses. For the ele- 
mentary school the problem remains as yet unsolved. 

It therefore appears that the primary school pushing up from 
below has extended itself so as to include that material 
which has been rejected from the secondary curriculum, 
and the eight-year course of the elementary school does 
not necessarily mark any natural division in the process of edu- 
cation. This view of the matter is further evidenced by the 
recent movement to divide the public school course into two 
six-year divisions. At any rate as it is constituted, our elemen- 
tary school course certainly does not mark the place where the 
education of a great mass of our youth should cease. 

The average individual is at fourteen just approaching the 
time of life when it is possible for him to begin in earnest the 
training that will fit him for his work. He is just entering the 
period in his development when he will begin to see the world 
in its proper relation to himself, and is it not at this time above 
all others that his mind is susceptible to moulding in its rela- 
tion to society and the world at large? It must also be borne 
in mind that economic and social conditions have been rapidly 
changing, that the problems confronting the man of to-day de- 
mand a mental and moral training such as has never been de- 
manded of men before, and that the individual who attempts to 
meet these problems with an equipment such as the schools of 
a generation ago gave, must inevitably fall far behind in the 
struggle of life, if we mean efficient life. 

All of the arguments that have been instrumental in the crea- 
tion of free public high schools in cities and towns, apply 
equally well to the establishment of high schools in rural com- 
munities. Such schools will ultimately become the colleges of 
the people, the institutions wherein the youth of the country will 
receive their introduction to the sciences, to mathematics, to 
literature, to history, and to the fine and applied arts. They 
represent a period of training in the humanities (we do not 
refer alone to the languages, since they are but a means to such 
and end), and in such practical studies as will give a basis not 



Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity g 

only for their ultimate culture, but for their final training in 
their chosen economic pursuits. In short they will in time be 
the means of refining not only the economic pursuits of life, but 
they will raise the standard of living, beautify the home, and 
refine the social relations of the people. 

There is no other place where a good education will give such 
returns to the individual as it will in the country, where the life 
is more isolated, and where the individual has to depend largely 
upon his own resources for his culture and entertainment. The 
city with its many educational advantages is giving an oppor- 
tunity to its youth that the country must sooner or later dupli- 
cate, or our rural population will in time form a distinct class 
which will grow more hopelessly rural as the years go by. Some 
of the best blood of the nation is still to be found in the rural 
districts in this country, but this can not last long if the best 
material keeps flowing to the city to be swallowed up in many 
instances by the rabble, because, as individuals, they find them- 
selves handicapped by the lack of a proper education. 

If the education of our secondary schools is to be classed as 
cultural, the youth of our rural districts need it more instead of 
less than those who live in towns and cities, because the cities 
and large towns offer other means of acquiring culture that are 
not offered in the country communities. If, on the other hand, 
the secondary training is to become economic or practical, 
the individual in the country needs this training for 
his chosen work no less than his city cousin. It is to be hoped 
that in the final struggle between the so-called culture and trade 
schools of the secondary type, enough of the common culture 
element will be left to make it possible for a free mixing of the 
city and country bred youth. Further, it is to be hoped that the 
secondary training of the future does not become so specific as 
to bar a constant change of individuals from rural to urban life 
and the reverse. It would be a death blow to many of our 
cherished democratic institutions if we were to allow the develop- 
ment of an educational system that would brand the child and 
forever fix him in the environment in which he may happen 
to have been born. 

The rural high school has the further function of preparing 
those who may wish to do advanced work, for the university. 



io Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity 

and other institutions of higher learning. The youth of country 
and city are equally entitled to this opportunity, and it must be 
provided by those who are adult and producers ; it is an obligation 
to posterity that humanity has in a general way always recognized. 

Such high schools when they have become a part of the com- 
munity life will form the nucleus of the educational and social 
life of the section in which they are situated. They will influence 
the whole region educationally, and will stimulate the minds and 
broaden the views of those whose school days will have ended 
years before. It is impossible fully to estimate the value of the 
influence of a good high school upon the citizens of these remote 
sections of the country. Such an institution with its debating 
societies and public lectures would ultimately become the forum 
of the people where the vital questions of the day could be dis- 
cussed, and where intelligent citizenship could be created. All of 
these influences will, with the coming of these schools, inevitably 
lead to a broadening and refining of the social relation in country 
life. A large part of our education both cultural and practical 
comes through contact with other individuals, and in general the 
broader this contact the richer will be the opportunity it will pre- 
sent. The rural high school, the community unit of which will 
be of necessity much larger than the usual school district, will 
serve to bring the young of a relatively large geographical area 
together. .The result of this can not fail to raise the general 
standard of life in these various communities. 

A reference to the state school reports will establish the fact 
that wherever rural high schools have been created and main- 
tained, the lower schools have shown an increased vitality. This 
is what one would expect since they set a standard of excellence 
which these schools try to reach. It is certainly very evident 
from a study of the facts of the case that wherever there has 
been no standard of measure placed upon the product of the 
public schools they have shown less vitality and are of a lower 
standard than in regions where such a standard has been main- 
tained. 2 And no standard has been so effective as that placed by 
an institution which is destined to receive their output. This is 
largely due to the fact that no other authority has created a 
definite standard of efficiency. The meeting of the pupils pre- 



Report of State Superintendent of Illinois, 1904, pp. 173-184. 



Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity n 

pared at the various elementary schools of the district, in actual 
social and mental contact, has a wholesome reactionary effect upon 
the schools from whence they come. Again the child sees be- 
yond him a goal toward which to work, and even if he is never 
destined to reach it, it will have helped him somewhat. 

These schools will also relieve the congestion of older pupils 
who remain in the elementary schools in the hope of getting 
something more out of a course which they have already com- 
pleted in most if not in all lines. Thousands of such boys and girls 
linger about these schools every year and finally become dis- 
couraged and leave, because of lack of work and attention, and 
if they do remain, as in some instances they certainly do, they 
succeed as a rule, only in forming indolent habits, or if they suc- 
ceed in enlisting the interest of the teacher they take the time that 
justly belongs to the younger children who are accordingly 
neglected. This condition exists at one time or another in almost 
every rural district in the country, which is located at too great 
a distance from a high school. 

These institutions will reflect back upon the elementary schools 
through the indirect process of giving them better prepared 
teachers. It is perfectly safe to assume that these lower schools 
will, to the last one, have teachers that have a secondary training 
as a minimum, if they are located under the shadow of a rural 
high school. This is an exceedingly important factor when the 
enormous number of teachers employed in these same country 
districts, who are fresh from the schools they teach or from a 
neighboring school of no higher grade, is taken into consideration. 
Again in districts that have reached a higher standard of qualifi- 
cation for teachers, the rural high school comes in as a feeder 
to the normal school which gives opportunity for the professional 
training of their output. Many of these normal school trained 
teachers naturally enough find their way back to their home 
communities. The following tables will throw some light upon 
this subject of the preparation of teachers in high schools. 



12 Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity 

TABLE I 3 
Relating to High School Trained Teachers in Illinois 



Name of high school 



Teachers sent out 



Graduates 



Under 
graduates 



Total 
teachers 



Total 
graduates 



Biggsville. 
Harvey . . . 
Harrisburg 

Joliet 

Lasalle . . . 
Neuvoo. . . 
Oak Park. 
Ottawa. . . 
Pontiac 4 . . 
Roseville . 
Savana . . . 
Streator . . 

Totals. . 



16 

14 

o 

76 

45 

23 

o 

o 

90 

5 

o 

154 



o 
140 



230 

6 

6 

J 54 



423 



175 



598 



89 
81 
16 

317 
124 

63 

94 

700 

240 

45 

20 

500 



2,299 



The above schools are located in towns or cities. 



Report of State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
This school has a training course for teachers. 



[904, p. 163. 



Extension of High School Privileges a Necessity 



*3 



TABLE II 5 

Relating to the Number of Graduates ,Who Enter the 
Teaching Profession Immediately Upon Completing 
Their High School Courses, in the State of Wisconsin. 



3 year 
high 
school 



4 year 
high 
school 



Totals 



Graduated 1902-3 
Taught 1903-4. . . 
Graduated 1903-4 
Taught 1904-5. . . 



278 
90 

63 



2,132 

637 
2,256 

1 ,040 



2 ,410 

727 

2.47 1 

1,103 



Neither of the preceding tables takes into consideration such 
individuals as have extended their preparation by entering nor- 
mal schools and universities, and who sooner or later will have 
returned to the schoolroom. 

To put the matter another way thirty per cent, of the whole 
number of individuals finishing the high schools of Wisconsin 
at the end of the academic year 1902-3 taught in the elementary 
schools the succeeding year and the following year 44 per cent, 
of those having graduated the year next preceding also entered 
the profession of teaching. 

The illustrations given above are only a few of many that 
might be presented. The same condition exists in all of the 
states which have rural high schools located within their 
boundaries ; and where such schools do not exist, many of the 
graduates of the city high schools find their way into the rural 
communities where they teach, upon the whole, only long enough 
to get sufficient experience to enable them to secure positions in 
the towns and cities. 



5 Compiled from Reports of Superintendent of Public Instruction of 
Wisconsin, 1902-3-4-5. 

General sources for chapter: — Reports of state superintendents and 
commissioners of education for the states and territories for the last 
thirty and in some instances the last fifty years. 



CHAPTER III 

STATE AID TO RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS A PUBLIC NEED AND 
DUTY 

The need of rural high schools from the standpoint of the 
individual and the community has already been discussed, there- 
fore it remains only to deal with the problem from the standpoint 
of the state. The state, being the largest social unit that directly 
taxes itself for educational purposes, is as a consequence the most 
comprehensive unit in educational administration and support. 
The attitude of the national government has always been favor- 
able to education, but it has left the administration of educational 
affairs to the various states and territories. It has on the other 
hand bequeathed to the various states and territories large grants 
of land to be strictly used for the purposes of public education, 
in addition to this it has in one instance contributed to the various 
states a considerable amount of its excess funds, which amounts 
were in most cases applied to education by these states. All 
of the states administered under constitutions adopted since the 
War of the Rebellion have made provision in these same consti- 
tutions for the establishment of a system of free public schools, 
and such states and territories as do not have constitutional pro- 
visions, have established like systems through legislative enact- 
ments. The only questions are then, to what extent shall this 
education be carried, and how shall it be supported ? 

One of the prime functions of the democratic state is to raise 
the general intelligence of its citizens to the highest possible 
degree. This is, in fact, the only policy that it may pursue, 
would it perpetuate itself. The many vital social problems which 
confront the country to-day can only be solved through increasing 
the general intelligence of the people at large, and by giving 
the freest opportunity for the development of individual genius. 
All of the states have, in intent at least, made provision for the 
increase of general intelligence to the extent of providing an 
elementary education. That this provision has been ample in 
the past is not sufficient evidence that it will suffice in the future. 
The growing complexity of our economic and social life is 
making demands upon citizenship that cannot be met by an edu- 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 15 

cational preparation that was intended for the relatively simple 
life of the past. Many of the states have already recognized 
this, and are making strenuous efforts to extend their systems 
to more completely include the high schools. No amount of 
preparation in the field of leadership will be sufficient to give 
strength to a democracy unless it is accompanied by an increased 
intelligence in the general citizenship. Again there are all degrees 
of leadership, and this means many degrees of preparedness on 
the part of an immense army of different individuals ; such an 
army as it would take all of the universities and colleges many 
years to provide. The state must then of necessity look to the 
high school as an institution for the preparation of leaders of 
a secondary class, and since upon the whole such secondary 
leadership will in rural communities be assumed by those of 
rural birth it is essential that such communities shall have in 
their midst an institution for their training. 

It has been pointed out elsewhere that the elementary schools 
are greatly stimulated by the establishment of secondary schools. 
In fact it may be doubted whether it is possible for them to 
become highly effective unless there is some higher institution 
to receive and measure the efficiency of their product. Not only 
is such a standard necessary, but it must be clear cut and defi- 
nite, and heretofore no such standard has arisen, either for ele- 
mentary or secondary schools, that has not been created by an 
institution destined to receive their product. Some are inclined 
to the opinion that this is all wrong and it may be so, but it is 
inevitable nevertheless, and if such standards are to be created 
the ultimate correction must come from above, and this is par- 
ticularly true for the elementary school, because the early age at 
which the average child finishes the course makes it impossible 
to set a standard of social and economic utility that will be defi- 
nite and capable of being measured. It follows then that the state 
cannot build up an effective system of public schools until it 
makes provision for the output of the elementary schools, and 
provides educational opportunities for the individual up to the 
time that he assumes the responsibility of economic production. 

Again the elementary schools cannot become as effective as 
they might be until they are provided with an educated corps 
of teachers. To secure the best of these the state must give the 



1 6 State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 

widest opportunity for the continuation of the education of all in 
every community. It is not sufficient to the purpose that a few 
special schools be established to train teachers at a long distance 
from these rural communities. The best evidence of this ineffi- 
ciency is shown by the fact that but a small portion of the teaching 
corps of the country has completed a normal school course and 
yet these schools are comparatively plentiful and entirely free 
to those who desire to prepare for the profession. They are, 
however, so located as to require that the student must leave 
home to secure their advantages. It is a well known fact that 
the immediate region wherein these schools are located furnishes 
an unusually large proportion of their students, and that the 
schools in such favored communities are more largely supplied 
with normal graduates. The best of the available material finish 
the elementary schools before they are old enough to leave home, 
and in addition to this the extended time required for a grammar 
grade prepared pupil to finish his training away from home is 
such as to bar many on the grounds of economy. Thus it turns 
out that the normal schools succeed in preparing but a small 
portion of the teachers needed in the elementary schools of the 
country. The truth of this is indirectly evidenced by the fact 
that the normal schools of the country that have raised their 
entrance requirements so as to admit only teachers and high 
school graduates are preparing an increased number of teachers 
each succeeding year. This increase is out of proportion to 
the increase of previous years and to the increase in the out- 
put of such normal schools as still admit graduates of the gram- 
mar grades. Coming back to the main question at issue it is an 
undisputed fact that a large proportion of the elementary schools 
of the country are taught by teachers that have received no 
training other than that afforded by the school which they teach 
or a school of equal rank. That the rural high school will in a 
large measure solve this problem of better teachers for the 
elementary schools in rural districts cannot be questioned. 1 The 
influence of these schools will be felt not only through the teachers 
that they place directly into these schools of lower grade, but 
through the individuals that they send to the normal schools of 
the country. 

1 See Chapter II, last paragraph. 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 17 

It is vital to the welfare of the democratic state that the various 
community units of which it is composed do not develop sepa- 
rate social classes, and this is just what is happening in this 
country at the present time. Many rural communities are rela- 
tively retrograding rapidly; this is in part due to the fact that 
they do not offer adequate educational opportunity to the young, 
and to the consequent migration of the better element to the 
towns and cities where better educational facilities may be 
secured. The child of fourteen or fifteen cannot be sent to these 
towns and cities alone and the only alternative is to leave the 
country entirely. It is certain that parents of discretion will not 
permit their children to leave home at any such age, and it is 
just as certain that their ambition for their children will not 
permit them to remain in a community where proper educational 
opportunities are denied them. The places left vacant by these 
people are immediately filled by individuals of foreign birth. 
These together with the less ambitious and the less prosperous 
of American birth are at present tending to constitute our agri- 
cultural classes. The welfare of our country depends to a great 
extent upon our ability to absorb and work into Americans these 
foreign born peoples, and it is important that their lot be cast not 
with the least but with the most progressive and cultured of 
our citizens. 

The only way the state can counteract this tendency toward 
community class differentiation is through the agency of the 
public schools. The extension of educational opportunities in 
these districts until they are more nearly equal to the opportu- 
nities given by the cities will have a tendency to check migra- 
tion somewhat and will also raise the general standard of intelli- 
gence of those that remain. Such opportunities will serve also to 
Americanize the foreign element settling in these districts. They 
will also raise the barrier which hinders the city bred from 
making permanent homes in the country. All of which will lead 
to the reestablishment of social intercourse between our rural 
and urban populations. 

In all of the turmoil arising from our strenuous efforts to 
extend our commercial supremacy we are prone to forget that 
history has proven that the greatest asset a nation can possess 
lies in the cultivation of its soil and the developing of an intelli- 



r8 State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 

gent and cultured class of rural people. And though agriculture 
has made enormous strides in recent years in this country it has 
by no means kept pace with other industrial pursuits. Its largest 
asset has not been through increased intelligence in agriculture 
proper, but through a rapid development in the production of 
tools and machinery. This sudden development in material aids 
did not find its impetus in agriculture as such, but it largely 
grew out of the rapid development of the mechanical arts which 
in turn received their impetus from manufacture and transpor- 
tation. As a science it must be admitted that the subject of 
agriculture is in its infancy in this country. The only influence 
that can raise the agricultural pursuit to an art is the increased 
education of our rural population. In recognition of this need 
the national government has been making strenuous efforts to 
increase the general knowledge along this line by providing for 
the preparation of leaders in the field. But such leadership will 
avail little until the intelligence of the rank and file of farmers 
is increased, and this burden must rest with the various states. 
A few of the states have recognized that there is such a problem, 
and some of them have provided for a number of agricultural 
schools of the secondary type. Wisconsin has provided for the 
establishment of such a school in any county of the state. These 
schools are as a rule too short in term and too narrow in scope 
to admit of a good secondary education. To get results an 
agricultural school must, like a commercial school, teach some- 
thing more than the particular subject. These schools must if 
they would succeed give a course rich enough in other material 
to become cultural in a general way. If we are to sacrifice 
the culture side of our secondary education to secure the prac- 
tical training we would much better let it alone. But this need 
not be the case, the introduction of the practical courses into 
the secondary schools does not necessarily entail the throwing 
out of all of the subjects that have heretofore composed the 
curricula of these schools. Such an injection of new material 
may require the modification of many of these subjects both in 
content and presentation, and the disbanding of some others, but 
a school which ignores totally the languages, and all such sciences 
as do not have a direct bearing upon the subject of agriculture, 
and the fine and applied arts as such, will never meet the demands 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 19 

of the country youth. Nor will such schools entice the country 
boy to remain in the country. The country youth demands above 
all else some of the culture that is denied him in the rural life 
of to-day. What we need in the country is not more of what 
we already have but some of the opportunities for culture that 
are denied by the conditions of country life, and which may be 
had for the taking in urban communities. What we want in 
rural communities is not agricultural high schools but agricultural 
courses in high schools. If in this struggle we have to sacrifice 
either the culture side of secondary education or the practical 
side we had better let the practical side go. The individual when 
he takes up the problems of life seriously will have little enough 
time to spend upon the finer things of life which make it worth 
while. To put it another way the man who has had a good 
liberal secondary training of even the old type will much more 
readily get what he may have missed in not having completed 
an agricultural school than he will get that which he would have 
missed had his training been reversed. Just as the high school 
graduate has in the past surpassed the business college graduate 
so will the graduate of the rural high school in the long run 
surpass the graduate of these elementary agricultural schools, 
as at present conceived. 

Equal opportunity to all is a fundamental doctrine of democ- 
racy, and the mere fact that the child happens to reside in a 
community where it is more difficult to give educational 
advantages should not in the large militate against him. It 
may be essential to the welfare of the state at large that his 
parents be there, and if the economic conditions be such as to 
hinder the community from giving him proper educational advan- 
tages, the state should see to it that the conditions are changed, 
or that the deficiency in opportunity be, if possible, supplied. 

The welfare of the state depends not only upon the general 
intelligence of its citizens, but also upon intelligent leadership. 
The leaders in a democracy should not only be intelligent, but 
they should possess the largest possible amount of intelligence. 
The necessity for the preparation of leaders has been recognized 
by the national government as well as every state in the Union 
to a greater or less degree. The national government has recog- 
nized this principle by the founding of military and naval acade- 



2o State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 

mies and colleges, by the support of agricultural colleges, and 
by grants to institutions of higher learning in a large majority 
of the states. The various states have recognized the principle by 
making large grants of public lands and of moneys to the institu- 
tions of higher learning in their confines, and by the establish- 
ment and support by direct taxation, or by special appropriations, 
of state universities, colleges, and normal schools. 

As previously pointed out the various states have upon the 
whole made it possible for all to have the opportunity of receiving 
an elementary education, but the present status of high schools 
is by no means such as to provide secondary educational opportu- 
nities to any great proportion of the rural population. Some 
of the states have created preparatory schools in connection with 
their higher institutions of learning, but these are not adequate 
to the purpose for which they were intended, since they necessi- 
tate the child leaving home at an age when he should be under 
the direct charge of his parents, and since the parents in many 
cases cannot afford to keep their children in these schools. 
At this age the child is not as a rule self-supporting at least 
in a degree that would enable him to support himself and still 
find time to do the school work. In which case, if the parent 
cannot afford to support him away from home, he fails to reach 
the university. This is not necessarily the case with the individ- 
ual who has succeeded in finishing the secondary course of in- 
struction, as is evidenced by the large number of boys and girls 
who succeed in making their way through the universities. 

As a result of this condition an undue proportion of our college 
and university students are town or city bred, and this proportion 
is continually on the increase. If the state desires the best mate- 
rial out of which to create its leaders, it must extend the opportu- 
nity for the securing of a secondary education to every individual 
in every community in the country. Much of the best material 
in the nation is yearly going to waste, in so far as leadership is 
concerned, because of this unsurmountable gap in our free school 
system. Such a loss is of vital importance to the state and 
country. 

" The discovery and development of superior ability wherever 
it exists is one of the safeguards of a democratic society. But to 
secure this, secondary education should be within the reach of all 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 



— not merely of all the cities. Moreover, free secondary educa- 
tion sufficiently broad and so flexibly administered as to meet the 
wants of all pupils whether they intend ultimately to go to college, 
enter a profession, go into business, or remain on the farm, would 
undoubtedly tend to check the migration of the best families 
from the country to the cities — a very desirable result." 2 

Dr. Cubberley in his exhaustive study, " School Funds and 
Their Apportionment," has pointed out that the mass of the rural 
districts is already overburdened in their attempt to support ele- 
mentary schools of an inferior class while the towns and cities 
with comparative ease support not only elementary schools but 
also high and sometimes technical schools. The following table 
taken from Dr. Cubberley's work illustrates this fact better than 
any words. 
Highest and Lowest Rate of Tax in Mills Necessary to 

Produce $250.00 " Per Teacher " by Local Taxation, 

with State Averages. 3 





Rate of taxation in mills 




Highest 


Lowest 


Average 




11 .62 

2.97 

8.41 

4.90 

ir -57 

7-56 

10.88 
318 

10.41 


■36 
1.42 

1.36 
.88 
.72 

3-56 

3-9° 
•44 

1.76 










i-75 
2.68 
1.42 


1 5 towns of Windham County 

23 towns of Fairfield County 




i-95 






3-32 


















2.99 





Hanus, School Review, Volume VIII., p. 345. 
Cubberley, p. 53. 



22 State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 

The above table clearly shows that no unit of taxation less than 
the state can be counted upon to give the financial aid necessary 
for the universal establishment of free secondary schools. Cer- 
tainly the county as a unit of taxation and support for secondary 
schools is superior to the township or district unit, but the above 
clearly shows that if the state allows the burden to rest upon 
the various counties there will be little result except possibly in 
some of the thickly populated eastern states. Massachusetts has 
undoubtedly secured a considerable result by enforcing upon the 
towns the support of secondary education, but it must be remem- 
bered that the population of this state is upon the whole crowded 
into villages and cities, and notwithstanding this she has in recent 
years recognized the necessity of extending aid to secondary edu- 
cation in the poorer towns. 

In many sections of the country the proposition to establish 
high schools in a given community, or to give state aid to such 
schools is frequently met with the argument that secondary educa- 
tion is not and never has to any extent been the function of the 
state. This statement is certainly historically incorrect, because 
the early grammar schools of colonial times were the first to 
receive state aid unless one would include the occasional appro- 
priations that were made to colleges. And these same grammar 
schools, which were principally preparatory schools, were among 
the first to be supported by general taxation. 4 

In 1636 just six years after Boston was settled, when the entire 
population of Massachusetts Bay Colony did not exceed 5,000, 
the general court appropriated 400 pounds sterling to Harvard 
College. This sum exceeded the tax levy, for the entire year, 
for all other purposes combined. In 1647 the colony passed a 
law compelling every town with a population to exceed 100 
families to support a public grammar school to fit boys for Har- 
vard. 4 

These schools were to be free at the option of the towns sup- 
porting them. Connecticut followed the lead of Massachusetts 
with similar laws. Every colony gave support to secondary 
or higher education before the Revolution, and every state from 
its inception has given support to higher education. 4 The atti- 

4 Brown : — The Making of Our Middle Schools, Chapter III. 
* Dexter: — History of Education in America, Chapter III. 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 



23 



tude of the national government is shown in that in 1787 it set 
aside two complete townships in every new territory for the 
support of higher education. The great mass of the Western 
States support state universities and other institutions of col- 
legiate grade. In view of the fact that the state is supporting 
in most instances universities and to a greater or less degree ele- 
mentary schools, it is difficult to see how the position can be 
maintained that secondary education is not a function of the state. 

The antagonistic attitude frequently held toward the extension 
of secondary educational institutions is probably a result of the 
fact that the state support of the higher institutions of learning 
has usually been through the granting of special subsidies and 
the consequent nonappearance of the item upon tax receipts. 
Again the settlement of the West was by men who did not bring 
into the new country much of the culture and training present 
among the early settlers of New England; and in these new 
states the elementary schools were largely a development of the 
new civilization, growing out of the immediate wants of the 
people and rarely if ever exceeding the practical need of these 
people with their scattered population and simple life. In short 
this unfriendly attitude toward the institution, when held by men 
of intelligence, is probably a result of the fact that we are just 
passing out of the frontier stage of our development and are but 
beginning to look upon the matter of education, particularly 
higher education, as essential to the new condition presented by 
the evolution of a higher and more complex civilization. 

It seems that many persons have worried over the pauperizing 
effect of giving to the individual a free education. This has 
been one of the stock arguments of the opponents of free educa- 
tion from the first inception of the idea. In England, even to-day, 
the charity view of the matter is yet largely held in connection 
with the public schools. In this country the practical workings 
of a free educational system has totally disproved that it can 
have a pauperizing effect upon its recipients. The claim that the 
public provision of free educational opportunities in this country, 
in so far as such opportunities have been created, have tended 
to pauperize the recipients of them is of course untenable, and 
the further claim that the extension of such opportunities to in- 
clude secondary schools will tend to pauperize the youth of the 



24 State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 

land is, in view of our past experience of the last forty years, 
equally untenable. If the contention were true we would already 
be a nation of paupers. 

Neither is the statement that the increase of state aid to the 
rural communities, in order that they may provide better educa- 
tional opportunities both elementary and secondary, will tend to 
pauperize them, borne out by this experience. It is a fact, that 
an increase in state aid to elementary and secondary schools has 
invariably led to an increase in local taxation for the purposes of 
education. 8 This false theory has also time and again been 
directed against the present tendency to supply free of cost text- 
books and other needed apparatus to the children. The error in 
this argument is of a sociological character. The peculiar nature 
of an education, as such, makes it impossible to pauperize it, since 
it cannot be given directly to the individual, but on the other 
hand must be secured by each and every one through individual 
effort. Thus it is impossible by any human contrivance to pauper- 
ize it, because no amount of opportunity can educate or relieve 
the individual necessity to strive, in the securing of an education. 
Further educational opportunity is, when properly administered, 
only a loan to the individual, and he can neither barter nor 
monopolize it. It is a loan that will pay the largest of all divi- 
dends to the state. 

There is another phase of the general subject of extending state 
aid to the institution of public education which has not been 
worked out by any one, so far as we know. At every attempt of 
the state to extend its fostering care to the schools of the remote 
and relatively poor districts, we hear the representatives of the 
great wealthy city districts giving vent to the cry that they are 
already paying into the educational fund of the commonwealth 
much more than they are receiving from it. This viewed in the 
proper light should of course give rise to no such controversy, 
so long as the opportunities extended to the children in these 
remote districts do not exceed those provided to the city child. 
But there is something the matter with the claim of the large city 
in this matter from the purely economic standpoint. 

The great city of a commonwealth is in a sense the clearing 
house for all the lesser cities, towns, and rural communities. The 

8 See various Reports of State Superintendents. 



State Aid to Rural High Schools a Public Need and Duty 25 

smaller cities are the clearing houses for more restricted com- 
munities, and the towns are the clearing houses for the rural 
communities. There is no doubt but that the banking institutions 
of the smaller cities carry on a large credit business with similar 
institutions in the metropolis of the commonwealth, and that the 
towns carry on a credit business with these same smaller cities, 
and again that the rural communities carry on a credit business 
with the banks of the towns and villages. To put the matter 
directly there is a continuous flow of surplus earnings to the 
larger cities for investment there. .This is clearly evidenced by 
the fact that the failure of one or two of these larger institutions 
will as a rule cause a crash clear down the line, until the actual 
loss is felt even in the most remote communities. 

The point which we wish to establish is this, that the assessed 
valuation of a great city is not necessarily upon property owned 
by the people residing in that city, but that it may and actually 
does represent the wealth of a multitude of people who live in 
smaller cities, towns, villages, and rural communities. This being 
the case the argument that the great cities are compelled to con- 
tribute more than their just share to the support of free public 
education is not well founded in fact. The claim that these cities 
are compelled by the state to extend charity to the rural com- 
munities in matters of education and other benefactions is not 
correct. It would seem that here is a rich field for investigation 
which might if it can be cultivated lead to an entirely new view 
of the matter of state benefactions. 

General sources for chapter : — 

Cubberley : — School Funds and Their Apportionment. 

Brown : — The Making of Our Middle Schools. 

Dexter: — History of Education in America. 

Reports of state superintendents and commissioners of education 

for the states and territories for the last thirty and in some 

instances the last fifty years. 



CHAPTER IV 

UNITS OF ORGANIZATION AND COURSES OF STUDY FOR 
RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 

The units of organization for rural high schools vary widely 
in the different sections of the country as well as in some of the 
states themselves, the smallest of these units being the district. 
These district high schools in so far as they may be classed as 
rural, have largely grown out of the elementary schools through 
the gradual addition of high school subjects. This is particularly 
true in such states as have had the district unit of organization 
in matters of education. In every state with the district unit of 
organization and taxation, where the law has failed to define the 
public school as a strictly elementary school, the rural high schools 
have grown up as district schools. Such conditions as permit of 
this method of extension of the elementary schools have their 
strong points. Many of the large prosperous high schools of 
the country have evolved from the elementary schools in this 
manner, and a large number of these would not now exist had it 
not been for the pioneer work performed by the early elementary 
schools. This type of development is still going on in many parts 
of the country at the present time. 

The great weakness of the rural district unit is, that as a rule, 
it has neither the pupils nor the finances out of which to create 
a high school. Other things being equal, the rural high school 
will increase in efficiency just in proportion as it can add to itself 
pupils and teachers. 

The union of districts for high school purposes is also an in- 
direct outgrowth of the gradual extension of the elementary 
school. It is quite probable that as a type it is the result of the 
combining of two or more advanced district schools that had 
already developed considerable high school work in connection 
with their elementary courses. This system of organization for 
high school purposes has some advantages over any of the others, 
since under a well defined administrative policy it would permit 
of a more economic distribution of schools than would be pos- 
sible under the township system. The population of a state is 
not distributed according to township lines, but is usually, even 



Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 27 

in the most remote districts, distributed about small towns and 
villages, and these small centres of population are, as a rule, well 
distributed over the territory. They generally, in a small way, 
constitute the business centres of these several communities, and 
are usually located in the most densely populated districts of the 
region. If high schools were established in these small towns 
and villages, they would be within reach of most of the pupils, 
and if the surrounding territory were properly divided, the 
scheme would yield itself readily to the transportation of pupils, 
which is, in the near future, going to become one of the greatest 
factors in the development of such schools. These small towns 
or villages, being the centres of trade for the surrounding coun- 
try, and the points for the distribution of the United States mails, 
would necessarily lend themselves better to the solution of the 
problem of transportation than the townships. The old saying, 
that "All roads lead to Rome," has a particular significance here. 
On the other hand the township system of organization must do 
one of two things, either locate its high school or schools in the 
larger town or towns, or locate it or them so as to geographically 
occupy the. centre of the township or the centres of smaller geo- 
graphical divisions. If the first course be pursued, it will be neces- 
sary for many of the pupils to travel across the entire township 
while a high school may be located within a few miles of them in a 
neighboring township. If however the school is located in the 
geographical centre of the township, the mass of the pupils will 
in all probability have to travel long distances. In a few of the 
states where the township system prevails, the difficulty has been 
surmounted by permitting the pupils to attend the high school 
of an adjoining township, when their own high school is too 
distant to be easily reached, the district or the township where 
the pupil resides paying the tuition. This however, only serves 
to complicate a system which need not exist. The practice 
serves further to weaken financially the very schools that in many 
instances can least afford it. 

The township unit of organization is more prevalent than the 
district unit in so far as it applies to rural high schools that have 
the state recognition as such. This is a perfectly natural con- 
dition of affairs, since in the most of the older and wealthier 
states the township constitutes the unit of taxation and organiza- 
tion for public school and other civil purposes. The Eastern 



28 Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 

and Middle Western states have largely organized their schools 
upon the township unit basis, while the Rocky Mountain and 
Western states have practically ignored the township unit in 
educational matters. So long as the unit of high school organ- 
ization is made to conform with the political units of taxation 
and administration, the township unit is the most desirable, since 
the county high school plan necessitates, to a large extent, the 
removal of the pupil from the home. 

The union of townships into high school districts has been 
employed to some extent where the townships covered a small 
area, or where they separately have been unable to support high 
schools. This plan is advisable rather than to inadequately sup- 
port two or more high schools, and with the free transportation 
of pupils could be made to meet very satisfactorily the wants in 
some communities. 

The county plan of organization is very largely practiced, 
especially in the southern and western parts of the country. 
This plan usually, though not always, implies entire local support. 

There are other types of schools in the various states that have, 
to some extent, served and in fact still serve to take the place 
of secondary schools in rural communities. The private acade- 
mies of the eastern section of the country have served this pur- 
pose to a considerable extent. Some of the New England states 
at the present time permit the payment of the tuition of a large 
number of pupils in these schools, by the various towns in which 
they are located. In some instances the state recompensates 
these towns in an amount equal to a part or in some instances to 
the whole of this tuition. 

These academies and other private or semi-private institutions 
of equal rank in the South have, until very recently, almost 
entirely served as secondary schools, though they have, as a rule, 
collected tuition from their pupils. The Central States also have 
had a large number of such schools. The states of Ohio and 
Indiana in particular have in the past had a great number of 
so-called colleges and other private institutions of secondary 
rank well distributed over their territory. They are, however, 
rapidly giving way to the free public high schools. 

The state normal schools have in the past to at least some 
extent served as secondary schools, and since in most instances 
they are located in the agricultural regions, and have usually 



Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 29 

charged no tuition, they have played no small part in the secon- 
dary training of the rural youth of the country. These institu- 
tions have, however, in recent years tended to raise their entrance 
requirements so as to admit only high school graduates and certi- 
fied teachers, and as a result they are serving less and less the 
function of secondary schools. The fact that it has been possible 
for them to raise their requirements for entrance so as to include 
in general but high school graduates, is merely an evidence of 
the rapid growth of secondary schools. Many of these institu- 
tions, notably in the Middle West, still serve to a considerable 
extent the purpose of secondary schools, as is evidenced by the 
relatively large number of boys enrolled in comparison with the 
number of men in the teachers' profession in these states. 

The courses of study in the rural high schools are very similar 
to those of the city high schools in the states wherein they are 
located. The most notable difference being that they offer a 
smaller number of courses, a direct result of the small teaching 
force employed. Most of the states have, however, required 
a course other than the classical course in these schools, making 
the foreign languages elective where offered at all, and in almost 
all instances one or more of them are given. A notable exception 
to this general rule is the course outlined for the Florida state 
high schools, where the required course practically includes five 
parallel courses as follows : English History, Mathematics, Latin, 
and Science, — the elective courses being German, French, Greek, 
and Spanish. 

Wisconsin requires that each free high school shall give a 
course similar to an English Scientific course and permits the 
addition of an Ancient and Modern Classical course. 

Massachusetts requires for its rural high schools, employing 
two or more teachers, the offering of a similar course to that of 
Wisconsin. The state refuses to recognize the one teacher 
high schools. 

The following rules governing the making, adopting, and ad- 
ministering of courses of study for the Free High Schools of 
Wisconsin were adopted in 1903 -, 1 

1 Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Wis- 
consin, 1903-4, p. 96. 



30 Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 

i. All proposed courses of study must be approved by the 
State Superintendent, * * *. 

2. New Courses of study should go into force only at the 
beginning of the year, * * *. 

3. No course will be approved unless the teaching force is 
sufficient for its administration, * * *. 

Core of Required Work for All Courses. 

Every four year course of study shall contain at least fourteen 
units of work. Of these the following units of work should 
be in every course of study (a unit of work to mean one year's 
work of one period a day, or 180, or more, recitations). Recita- 
tion periods should be not less than 35 minutes in length and a 
longer period if desirable. 

I. Mathematics: 

Algebra, 1 unit. 

Geometry, 1 unit 2 units 

II. English: 

Includes literature, literary readings, compo- 
sition, and rhetoric 2 units 

III. Science: 

(a) Physics, 1 unit. 

(b) Any one of the following sciences, or 
a combination of no more than two of 
them, botany, zoology, physiology, physi- 
cal geography, 1 unit 2 units 

IV. History: 

(a) United States history, including history 
of the constitution, 1 unit. 

(b) Ancient history, or ancient and mediae- 
val, or mediaeval and modern and English 
history, 1 unit 2 units 

V. Theory and art of teaching must be offered as an option 
at least 12 weeks, or may be required in one or all courses. 
(See section 496a, as amended by Chapter 439, Laws of 1901.) 



Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 31 

VI. In courses offering less than four years of work in a 
foreign language, there must be at least three units of work in 
English, and two and one-half units in history. 

Options. 

Subject to the advice and sanction of the State Superintendent, 
and subject to the conditions herein contained, high schools have 
the following branches from which to choose in the construction 
of school courses : 

1. Any foreign language. 

2. Chemistry or any one of the sciences named in the " Core 
of required work." 

3. History. 

4. English. 

5. Mathematics. 

6. Civics. 

7. Political economy. 

8. Psychology. 

9. Commercial subjects. 

10. Subjects found in manual training and domestic science 



Maximum and Minimum Time Limits. 

1. No subject, as a rule, should be offered for a less time than 
one-half year. Algebra and geometry should never be required 
for a period to exceed one and one-half years each. 

2. Chemistry if offered, should be offered for a full year. 

3. Not less than two years of any foreign language may be 
offered. 

4. No single science should extend through more than one year. 

5. The maximum for history shall be three years, or four years 
including civics and economics. Where instruction in American 
history in the elementary schools is strong, it is advisable to have 
United States history follow rather than precede European 
history. 

6. Civics, economics, and psychology should not be given to 
exceed one-half year each. 



32 Units of Organization and Courses of Study 

7_ * * * 

The Board of Education of the State of Massachusetts out- 
lines the following course of study for the rural high schools 
of that state : 2 

A tentative course of study for a high school of two or three 
teachers, 

First Year. 

Periods 

Subjects required. Recitation without 

» * periods recitations 

Algebra 4 

Elementary physics, thirty weeks; elementary 

chemistry, ten weeks 4 

Ancient history 3 1 

Composition 1 

Total of required periods 12 1 

Elective. 

Latin 4 1 

Drawing 1 I 

Book-keeping 3 2 

Each pupil to elect at least seven periods, including periods 
without recitations. 

Second Year. 

Periods 

Subjects required. **^£ -££ n 

English literature 2 1 

English history 3 I 

Geometry 4 

Grammar and composition 1 

Total of required periods 10 2 

2 Report of the State Board of Education, State of Massachusetts, 
for the Academic Year 1 901-1902. 



Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 33 

Elective. 

Latin 3 2 

French 4 

Elementary chemistry, twenty weeks; botany, 

twenty weeks 3 2 

Book-keeping, twenty weeks; commercial geog- 
raphy, twenty weeks 3 1 

Each pupil to elect at least nine periods without recitations. 

Third Year. 

Periods 
Subjects reouired. Recitation without 

' * periods recitations 

English literature 3 

United States history, twenty-five weeks; civil 

government, fifteen weeks 3 

Composition and grammar 1 1 

Total of required periods 7 1 

Elective. 

Latin 3 2 

French 3 1 

Physiology and hygiene, twenty weeks, geology, 

twenty weeks 3 1 

Trigonometry, twenty weeks; geometry review, 

twenty weeks 3 1 

Each pupil to elect at least thirteen periods, including periods 

without recitations. 

Fourth Year. 

Periods 

Subjects required. Recitation without 

' " periods recitations 

Composition and grammar 1 1 

Total required points 1 1 



34 Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 

Elective. 

English literature 3 2 

Latin 3 2 

French 3 1 

Advanced physics, twenty weeks; astronomy, 

twenty weeks 2 2 

Solid geometry, twenty weeks ; advanced algebra, 

twenty weeks 3 1 

Drawing 2 1 

Any subject of previous year not taken 

Each pupil to elect at least eighteen periods, including periods 
without recitation. 

The above courses are typical of those commonly required 
in the rural high schools of the country. There is a general 
feeling prevalent that these high schools should serve as finishing 
schools rather than as preparatory schools for the universities. 
As a result the university preparatory course is generally elective 
in most of them, if it is given at all. 

This is not a new attitude as one soon discovers when he 
attempts to trace the development of the curricula of these 
schools. From the very inception of the rural high school move- 
ment, we find an attempt to differentiate the course of study 
of these schools from that of the city high schools and the acade- 
mies. In Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois especially this struggle 
has gone on for years. The rural high school courses of these 
states have passed through the ten-week subject curriculum stage 
of development, which was a result of the general culture idea. 
Unfortunately all such courses have been long since abandoned 
and we have remaining, as the core of the curriculum, the most 
practical subjects which have grown up recently in our city high 
schools. That these courses are not entirely satisfactory is evi- 
denced by the many attempts to introduce into these schools 
subjects that have more bearing upon the lives and occupations 
of the rural peoples. In recognition of the necessity for a differ- 
ent type of high school for the rural communities, we have the 
various states, in some instances, specifying the elimination of 
the dead languages, and in others even the elimination of all 



Units of Organisation and Courses of Study 



35 



foreign languages. In 1880 the legislature of Maine provided 
that instruction in the ancient and modern languages should not 
be given in any school aided by the state, unless such school 
constituted a part of a graded system. At the time of passage, 
this law had the effect of ruling all languages other than English 
out of the curriculum of the rural high schools. The intent of 
the law was doubtless, first, to secure a course in these small 
high schools other than the college preparatory course, second, 
to secure its most adequate administration by hindering the 
scattering of the energy of the teachers over too wide a field 
of instruction. In the administration of the laws governing high 
schools, the various state superintendents and state boards of 
education have as a rule insisted that the classical course should 
not occupy the first place in the curriculum. The discrimination 
against these courses has been placed upon the ground that but 
a very small percentage of the output of these schools will ever 
reach the university, and that such courses usually lead nowhere 
if not followed by a college course. The states that follow the 
plan of making the college preparatory course the dominant one 
in these schools are usually those whose high schools are under 
the direct supervision of the state universities. This is, however, 
not true in all cases. 

It is rather surprising to note that after thirty years' experience 
in the administration of rural high schools they, as institutions, 
upon the whole, provide instruction in no subjects that have not 
been borrowed from the city high schools. This is the more to 
be wondered at when we take into consideration the fact that 
since the inception of the institution its friends and supporters 
have continually advocated a different type of school for the 
rural communities. 3 While most if not all of the educational 
thinkers interested in these schools are crying for a differentia- 
tion of curriculum for them, none are coming forward with the 
worked out subjects to make up the new curriculum. It is safe to 
say that when they find these subjects and succeed in installing 
them we will immediately find them in most instances added to 
the city high school courses. The people of the country want 
what the cities have to give in the way of culture, and the cities 
want what the country may add. 



See Wisconsin, Chapter V. 



36 Units of Organization and Courses of Study 

All the types of rural high schools discussed in this chapter 
receive in some instances state aid, and all are in other instances 
entirely supported by local taxation. A detailed study of these 
schools and their methods of support will be taken up in the 
following chapters. 

General sources for chapter: — Reports of state superintendents and 
commissioners of education for the states and territories for the last 
thirty and in some instances the last fifty years. 



CHAPTER V 

STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

THE MAINE SYSTEM AS PRACTICED IN MAINE, WISCONSIN AND 
MINNESOTA 

Maine: 1 In his report for 1871, the State Superintendent of 
Maine, Warren Johnson, submitted the following form of bill to 
the legislature of his state : 2 

AN ACT IN AID OF FREE HIGH SCHOOLS 

Section 1. Whenever any city, town or towns, shall establish 
and maintain a suitable free high school for such city, town or 
towns, and shall annually make special appropriation, by tax or 
otherwise, for the same, the state by this act covenants to appro- 
priate annually in aid of said free school, not already provided for 
by state aid, a sum equal to the amount raised and actually paid 
by each city or town, for the like purpose, in no case to exceed 
five hundred dollars on the part of the state : said appropriation 
to be paid by the state treasurer from the general treasury, on 
or after November first of each year, upon proper certification 
by the governor and council, as provided in section four of 
this act. 

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the town, or school district, 
in which said free high school shall be located, to furnish at the 
expense of said town, or district, a suitable building and equip- 
ment for said school. 

Section 3. The course of study in said high school shall em- 
brace the ordinary academic studies, and especially the natural 
sciences in their application to mechanics, manufactures and 
agriculture. 

Section 4. Prior to the making or paying of any appropria- 
tion by the state in aid of such school, satisfactory evidence shall 
be furnished to the state superintendent of common schools, and 
by this officer to the governor and council, that the city or town 
asking aid, has complied with the conditions required in sections 
one and two of this act ; and a certificate thereof shall be issued by 

1 The latest available State Report was 1907. The latest available 
School Law was 1905. 

3 Report of State Superintendent of Maine, 1871, p. 92. 



38 State Aid to High Schools 

the governor and council for the benefit of the city or town asking 
such aid. 

Section 5. Cities, towns and school districts are hereby em- 
powered to appropriate a portion of school money to sustain said 
free high school, as indicated in this act, in addition to the special 
appropriation required in section one. 

Section 6. The free high school contemplated by this act shall 
be free to all youth in the town on such conditions of attainment 
or scholarship, as shall be fixed by the superintending school 
committee of the town ; and the same school may be open to youth 
from other towns upon the same conditions of scholarship, and 
at the same rates of tuition as the superintending school commit- 
tee may determine. 

The bill was adopted by the legislature the following year, and 
in 1873 there were 134 high schools which received aid from the 
state. The total amount of money awarded by the state for the 
year was $29,135. A large number of these schools were previous 
to this time privately endowed academies which were turned 
over to the various towns by their owners and managers. At 
least two were at the time established by towns with no villages 
of any consequence. 3 By the end of the academic year 1878 the 
number of schools had increased to 150, and the total enrollment 
of pupils had reached 11,849. The amount of money awarded by 
the state had increased to $35,827.86. 4 In his report for 1878 
the state superintendent intimated that there was a determined 
movement on foot to repeal the act providing state aid to these 
schools. As a result of the struggle that followed the legislature 
of 1879 passed an act suspending the operation of the law for 
one year. Their excuse for the action was that a reduction of 
state expenditure and taxation was necessary. 5 The following 
legislature reduced the maximum amount that could be paid to 
any one school to $250.00, and provided that ancient and modern 
languages should not be taught by any high school aided by the 
state unless it was a part of a graded system of schools. 

These laws were modified from time to time in order to pro- 
vide for the establishment of such high schools in adjoining 
towns, in precincts including a part of a town, or in a part of 

s Report of State Superintendent of Maine, 1873. 
4 Report of State Superintendent of Maine, 1878. 
* Report of State Superintendent of Maine, 1880, p. 49. 



State Aid to High Schools 39 

two or more towns. 6 It was also provided that no more than 
two free high schools might be established in any one town, and 
that the two taken together could receive only such state aid as 
the town should have received had it supported but one such 
school. If the town did not provide a high school, it was re- 
quired to pay the tuition of all of its high school students in 
attendance upon neighboring high schools, provided this tuition 
did not exceed thirty dollars per year for any one pupil. The 
state agreed to reimburse these towns in an amount equal to one- 
half of the amount actually expended for the tuition of such 
pupils. It was provided, however, that the state would not pay 
to any one town, upon this account, an amount in excess of 
$250.00 in any one year. 

During the academic year ending June, 1890, there were 210 
rural high schools which received aid from the state. These 
schools had a total enrollment for the year of 15,299. In the 
next ten years the number of schools had increased only to 214, 
and the enrollment had decreased to 13,338. The slight increase 
in the number of schools and the decrease in total enrollment 
in them were due to the fact that there had been introduced a 
state system of examinations for entrance to such schools. As a 
result of this many of the schools that had been previously listed 
as high schools and had received state aid as such were com- 
pelled to disband, and in like manner the enrollment in many 
of these schools was decreased, though the actual number of 
bona fide high school students had doubtless increased. 7 

By the end of the academic year 1906-7, the number of free 
high schools receiving direct aid from the state had increased to 
230. These schools had an enrollment for the year of 13,124. 
Of this number 4,116 or 31.3 per cent, were attending from rural 
communities, 5,016 or 38.2 per cent, were attending from the 
villages, and the remainder or 30.5 per cent, were attending from 
cities. Of the total number 401 or 3 per cent, were common 
school teachers. In addition to the above there were ten free 
high schools which were adjudged to be below grade and which 
consequently received no direct state aid. 8 



* Laws 1905, Sections 56 and 57. 

7 Reports of State Superintendents for years, 1890-1900. 

8 Maine School Report, p. 198. 



40 State Aid to High Schools 

The amount of state moneys, distributed for the aid of public 
schools, was for the academic year 1906-7, $2.98 per cen- 
sus child. 9 

The amount provided by local authorities for the support of 
free high schools during the same year was $273,810, and the 
amount provided by state subsidy was $45,104. Thus it appears 
that the state provides by direct subsidy an average of 14.1 per 
cent, of the total expense of these schools. 10 

Under the present law in Maine only Standard High Schools 
may receive pupils whose tuitions are paid by local communities. 
A Standard High School is one which is of sufficiently high 
standard to meet the approval of the State Superintendent. 11 
The superintendent reported 45 such schools in 1907. 12 

The free high schools of the state are under the direct super- 
vision of the school committees of the various towns in which 
they are located. 

Of the 230 approved free high schools in the state 229 have 
been established by the towns and but one has been established 
by a precinct. 13 

Since 1 891 Maine has been granting special subsidies to certain 
academies. During that year, and for the following ten years, 
fourteen academies were granted $500.00 each, two $800.00 each, 
and one $300.00 The legislature of 1899 also made special appro- 
priations to a large number of academies. Of the pupils enrolled 
in these schools in 1906-7, 2,849 were pursuing academic studies 
exclusively. Thus it appears that nearly 18 per cent, of the sec- 
ondary pupils of the state receive their education in these schools. 

Any town in Maine not supporting a free high school may 
contract with an academy in its own precincts for the education 
of its pupils of high school grade, and is entitled to receive from 
the state one-half of the amount expended for such tuition up to 
the amount of $250.00 per year. The law, however, makes no 
provision for the state inspection or supervision of such schools. 

6 Maine School Report, p. 128. 

10 Maine School Report, p. in. 

11 School Laws, 1905, Sections 63-4. 

12 Maine School Report, p. 34. 
18 Maine School Report, p. 189. 



State Aid to High Schools 41 

Wisconsin : 14 Wisconsin was the second state in the Union 
to provide monetary inducements for the establishment of rural 
high schools. The first law was passed 1875, and provided 
for the establishment of free high schools, giving a direct state 
subsidy of one-half the amount expended for instruction, not to 
exceed $500.00 to any one school. The law was similar to that 
passed by Maine two years earlier. In fact the Maine law was 
without doubt the model upon which the Wisconsin law was 
drawn. 15 That this law was intended for the encouragement 
of rural high schools at the time of its passage there can be 
no doubt. "Although the High School Law was primarily de- 
signed to bring to rural neighborhoods the two-fold advantages 
of (1) a higher instruction than the common district schools 
afford, and (2) a better class of teachers for these schools, it was 
nevertheless, anticipated from the first that the immediate re- 
sults of the law would be chiefly the improvement of existing 
graded schools in the larger villages and in cities." 16 The number 
of schools receiving state aid under this law the first year was 
twenty, their enrollment was 1,284. By the end of the academic 
year 1878-9, the number of schools had increased to eighty-eight, 
the enrollment to 6,693, an d the total amount of state aid to 
$25,ooo.oo. 17 

The legislature of 1877 changed the high school laws making 
the requirement that such schools be operated in buildings not 
used for other school purposes. This law, however, never actu- 
ally became operative, since the next legislature changed it and 
provided for the payment of the state subsidy to which the schools 
were entitled under the old act. 18 The law was, however, in 
effect long enough to affect the high schools of the state as is 
shown by the fact that the number of high schools decreased 
from 91 in 1879-80 to 78 in 1880-81. The enrollment for this 
period also dropped from 6,730 to 5,393. 

The laws created by the legislature of 1879 constitute the legal 
status under which the free high schools of the state have since 

14 The latest available State Report was 1904-6. The latest available 
School Laws were 1907. 

15 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1874, p. XXIV. 
18 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1876, p. 27. 

17 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1879. 

18 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1879, p. 20. 



42 



State Aid to High Schools 



been operated. Amendments to these laws have been made from 
time to time as will be pointed out later. 

These laws provided for the establishment of free high schools 
in any town, in any two or more adjoining towns, in any incorpo- 
rated village, in any city, or in any district containing an incorpo- 
rated village or supporting a graded school of at least two 
departments, provided there were at least twenty-five individuals 
in the proposed unit of organization prepared to do high school 
work. 10 The law provided for a board of three members to 
administer the affairs of the school. One member was to be 
elected to this board each year, thus providing for a continuous 
membership. Authority was given this board to grade the school 
and provide a course of study under the direct supervision of 
the State Superintendent. 20 

The legislature of 1881 provided for the scholarship of prin- 
cipals of such schools as follows : Principals must ( 1 ) be grad- 
uates of some university, college or normal school; or (2) hold a 
state certificate, or (3) pass an examination in all the branches 
taught in any such school. 21 

From the very inception of the law governing the establish- 
ment and support of free high schools the various state superin- 
tendents had advocated, through their reports, the passage of an 
act to provide for a more adequate supervision of these schools. 22 
As a result of this growing demand the legislatures of 1883 and 
1885 provided for this supervision by requiring that the superin- 
tendent prepare a course of study and supervise such schools, 
permitting him to call to his aid the professor of theory and art 
of education in the university. This law also gave the State 
Superintendent power to examine the teachers for these schools 
as provided under the previous laws. 23 

A feeling had been gradually growing in the state that the 
laws as existing did not to any considerable extent encourage the 
establishment of rural high schools, and upon the suggestion of 
the State Superintendent 24 the legislature of 1885 passed a law 

19 School Laws of Wisconsin, 1890, Sections 90-1. 

20 The School Laws of Wisconsin, 1890, Sections 492-3. 

21 The School Laws of Wisconsin, 1881, Section 494. 

22 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1879, p. 20, 1882, p. 24. 

23 School Laws of Wisconsin, 1890. 

24 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1884, p. 21. 



State Aid to High Schools 43 

permitting the establishment of free high schools in towns or 
adjoining towns having no graded schools. 25 The act provided, 
without limitation, for the payment by the state of one-half the 
amount expended in any such school for instruction alone, and 
appropriated for this purpose, $25,000 annually. 

Up to 1889 but four towns claimed aid under this act, and 
during the year 1887 one of these abandoned its school. 26 This 
result is scarcely to be wondered at, since a high school cannot 
long survive in a region where the elementary schools are not in 
a condition to prepare pupils for it. In view of the lack of demand 
for the mass of the money appropriated for this special purpose, 
the legislature of 1889 provided that the unapportioned balance 
of this fund should each year be added to the $25,000 appro- 
priated annually for the aid of free high schools established in 
communities supporting graded school systems. 25 

The same legislature provided for the appointment of an 
assistant by the State Superintendent to aid him in the super- 
vision of the free high schools. 27 

In 1 89 1 the legislature passed an act placing the certification of 
all teachers of free high schools entirely in the hands of the State 
Superintendent. 

In 1895 the legislature passed an act providing for the estab- 
lishment of manual training departments in high schools, and 
appropriated $2,500 annually to be distributed in $250 lots to 
such free high schools as maintained these departments. The 
number of such departments provided for by the act was limited 
to ten. 28 By the end of the academic year 1897-98 the number 
provided for in the act had been reached. 29 To meet this situa- 
tion the legislature doubled the amount of the annual appro- 
priation for manual training departments in the high schools, thus 
providing for twenty such departments in all. At the same time 
the amount of the annual appropriation for free high schools was 
increased to $100,000. This limited number having been pre- 
viously reached the legislature of 1907 changed the law so that 
it provided one-half of the amount expended in instruction in 

25 School Laws of Wisconsin, Section 496, — year 1890. 

26 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1890, p. 15. 

27 Acts of 1889, State of Wisconsin, Chapter 426. 

28 School Laws, State of Wisconsin, 1897. 

29 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1898. 



44 



State Aid to High Schools 



the subject not exceed in any one instance $250,000 for high 
school grades, and not to exceed $350.00 in case the course in- 
cluded the three upper grades in the grammar department. The 
annual appropriation was increased to $25,ooo. 30 

In 1903 the section of -the laws relating to the establishment 
of high schools in towns having no graded schools was amended 
by striking out the clause " in towns not having a graded system 
of schools." 31 

The immediate effect of this act was to cause the transfer of 
three of the district free high schools to the town class, thus 
enabling them to secure without limitation one-half of the amount 
actually expended for instruction. 

There were, in 1903-4 eight of these schools, by the end of the 
following year the number had increased to eleven, and before 
the 1904-6 report of the superintendent had gone to press eight 
others had qualified, making a total of nineteen. According to 
the statement of Superintendent Cary there is a distinct awaken- 
ing of interest in the towns throughout the state which do not 
as yet support high schools. 32 

The largest amount received from the state by any one of these 
high schools, for the year 1904-5, was $1,516.50, while the uni- 
form maximum amount received by the various district free 
high schools was for the same year $37i.04. 33 

In 1907 the section referring to township high schools was 
amended by increasing the maximum amount available for this 
type of school from $25,000 to $50,000 per annum. 34 At no time, 
however, in the history of these schools has the general appro- 
priation for this purpose been entirely exhausted. On the other 
hand the appropriations for the district type of free high school 
have frequently been inadequate to meet the demands upon 
the fund. 

The Legislative Acts of 1901 as amended in 1903 provide for 
the free tuition, in any high school of the state, of pupils who may 
reside in a town or a village not supporting a high school of its 
own. Provision is made for the payment of this tuition by the 

30 School Laws, State of Wisconsin, 1907, Chapter 503. 

31 School Laws, State of Wisconsin, 1903, Section 496. 

32 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1904-6, p. 96. 
' 3 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1904-6, p. 277. 
34 School Laws, 1907, Chapter 571. 



State Aid to High Schools 45 

district in which the pupil may reside. The amount of such 
tuition must not, however, exceed fifty cents per week. The 
districts provide this money by direct local taxation. The total 
amount of tuition received by all high schools in the state for the 
academic year 1905-6 was $99*521.07. The proportion of this 
amount paid by the various towns and villages, not supporting 
high schools could not be ascertained, but there is no doubt 
whatever that the law has had a very stimulating effect upon 
the secondary schools of the state. State Superintendent Cary says 
that the nonresident attendance in such schools was reported 
as 4,142 in the year 1901-2, the last before the tuition law went 
into effect; in 1906 it was 5,862, an increase of 41.5 per cent. 
At the same time the total enrollment increased from 17,724 
to 21,946, a gain of only 23.8 per cent. 35 Another factor enters 
here that Superintendent Cary takes no account of in this con- 
nection. The influencing factor referred to, is that of the impetus 
given to the elementary schools of the state through the legisla- 
tion of 1891 in reference to the grading of these schools. The 
operation of this law undoubtedly resulted in the preparation 
of a much larger number of rural pupils for high school work. 

It is perhaps worthy of note that the original intention of the 
legislature in aiding high schools in Wisconsin, was only to aid 
in the establishment of such schools and not in their actual main- 
tenance. This is shown by the fact that the first act provided only 
for the payment of a state subsidy to such schools for a period 
of three years. The limit was then extended to five years, and 
shortly after the expiration of this period it was again extended 
to ten years and so on until the present time. There was a short 
period during which the law actually lapsed, and the effect of 
this together with some other legislation suggested elsewhere 
is shown by the statistics of 1880-81. 

Perhaps no single piece of legislation passed in Wisconsin in 
recent years has had a more potent influence upon the rural high 
schools of the state than that which provided for a state system 
of graded schools. This act which was passed in 1901 resulted 
not only in the preparation of many more elementary pupils in 
the rural schools, but also resulted in an increased attendance 
in the high schools located in rural communities. These state 

36 Report of State Superintendent, Wisconsin, 1904-6, p. 101. 



46 State Aid to High Schools 

graded schools are permitted to do high school work at the 
option of the communities supporting them, if the State Super- 
intendent so permits. Thus provision is made for the gradual 
development of the elementary school of any district, not having 
high school facilities, into a high school district. 

The above suggested law provides for the payment of state 
subsidies to such graded schools as are not located in districts 
with high school facilities. These schools are divided into two 
classes as follows : First class schools must have at least three 
departments, they must employ principals who have state certifi- 
cates, and they may not employ more than one teacher each with 
a third grade certificate, and one each with a second grade certifi- 
cate. All others must hold either first grade certificates or state 
credentials of some kind. Second grade schools must have two 
or more departments and must employ principals with state 
credentials or first grade certificates issued by the county superin- 
tendents. Each such school must provide at least a nine months 
term of instruction, and must have an average daily attendance 
of at least fifteen pupils to entitle it to state aid. The board 
of such schools must also provide proper buildings, furniture, 
black-boards, globes, maps, and libraries to carry on the work. 

The law further provides that the State Superintendent shall 
appoint two inspectors to aid him in the supervision of these and 
the free high schools of the state. It also provides that a uni- 
form course of study must be prepared by the office of the State 
Superintendent and that this course shall be adopted by these 
schools. Under the provision of this act a minimum course has 
been provided by the State Superintendent. Schools of the first 
class receive $300.00 each, and schools of the second class receive 
$100.00 each annually from the state. The state has provided 
for these subsidies to high and graded schools by raising the 
amount annually by a direct tax. 36 

The legislature of 1907 amended this act so that it provides, 
that a principal of a second class graded school shall be required 
to hold a state certificate, or a first class county certificate and 
have at least one year's successful experience, or that he shall 
hold a second grade county certificate and have at least two 
years' successful experience. The amount of state aid to schools 

38 Legislative Act, State of Wisconsin, 1901. 



State Aid to High Schools 47 

of this class was also increased from $100.00 to $200.00 per 
annum. 37 

Superintendent Cary in his report for 1904, says : " I attribute 
it to results of the work accomplished in the graded schools, that 
more high schools have been established within the last two years 
than any equal length of time in the history of the state." 38 

For several years Wisconsin has had a law that permits the 
consolidation of rural schools and the transportation of pupils 
at public expense. The law as enacted at first placed a limit 
upon the distance that pupils could be transported, but this part 
of the act was amended by the legislature of 1901. 

In 1907 it was further provided that such school districts 
as closed their schools and paid the tuition of their pupils in 
graded schools or in the grammar departments of free high 
schools and furnished free transportation to the same should 
receive annually from the state treasury the sum of $75. oo. 39 The 
effect of this institution upon the rural high schools of the state 
has not as yet been great, but its effect in the future will undoubt- 
edly be tremendous, since many of these consolidated schools will 
in time develop into rural high schools, others will give partial 
high school courses, and all the others will sooner or later become 
thoroughly organized graded schools which will serve as feeders 
to the high schools. 

Wisconsin also provides for the establishment and partial state 
support of a limited number of county agricultural schools. The 
original act provided for the establishment of but two in the 
state. Any county or a combination of adjoining counties might 
according to law establish one of these schools. The first two 
schools meeting the requirements of the law were to receive from 
the state treasury an amount equal to one-half of the amount 
actually expended for their maintenance from year to year. 
Under this act two such schools were established. The legis- 
lature of 1903 provided for the establishment of two more or 
four in all. Under this new act each of these schools was to 
receive from the state an amount equal to two-thirds of the 
amount expended for maintenance from year to year, provided 



37 State Laws of Wisconsin, 1907, Chapter 374. 

38 Report of State Superintendent of Wisconsin, 1903-4, p. 78. 
3g Laws of Wisconsin, 1907, Chapter 553. 



48 State Aid to High Schools 

that the amount appropriated by the state to any one school 
should not exceed $4,000 for any one year. Four such schools 
having been established, and applications for others having been 
received by the state department, the legislature of 1907 pro- 
vided four additional schools or eight in all. 40 

It is quite evident that there is no disposition upon the part 
of the legislature to limit the number of these schools. The 
limitations imposed by the successive legislatures are necessary 
to the provision of the funds for their maintenance. These 
schools have so far provided but a two years' course, but they 
would certainly have to be classed as secondary schools. 

Another class of schools aided by the state, and which are 
classed by some as secondary schools are the county training 
schools for teachers. Ten of these were in existence in the state 
during the academic year 1905-6. The mass of their attention 
is given to a review of the subjects of the elementary school, so 
that the question would at once arise as to whether they could 
be classed as secondary schools. 

All of the high schools of Wisconsin are classed as free high 
schools except about fifteen known as independent high schools 
and located in the large cities. These institutions of course re- 
ceive no state aid, preferring to waive their right in this matter 
in order that they may be independent of the regulations govern- 
ing the free high schools. 

The various reports of the state superintendents classify the 
free high schools as three and four year schools. The three year 
class shows a gradual decrease in number from 1892-3 to 1900-01, 
and then a much more rapid decrease from the latter date to 
1905-6, due in large measure to the direct state support of graded 
schools. The number of such schools reported for the above 
dates are 66, 54, and 10. Their enrollment has in round numbers 
fallen from 3,000 to 2,000 and finally to 300, while both the 
number and the total enrollment of the four year class have much 
more than doubled in the same period. 

The first class graded schools have increased from 118 in 
1901-2 to 165 in 1905-6 and the second class from 154 to 219 
during the same period. In 1903-4 nine of the above graded 
schools became free high schools and in the following year twelve 
others were also advanced to this grade. 
40 Wisconsin School Laws of 1907, Chapter 540. 



State Aid to High Schools 49 

In summing up the present status of the rural high schools of 
Wisconsin we will quote Superintendent Cary at some length. 
41 The laws in our state give every facility for organizing high 
schools. Almost any group of people, regardless of district 
boundaries, may decide to organize as a free high school district. 
The only conditions for securing state aid are that they must have 
within the district twenty-five or more pupils prepared to take 
up the high school work, as determined by the examination given 
under the direction of the state superintendent, and must organize 
and conduct the school according to statutory enactment. The 
demand for high school privileges is rapidly growing, and every 
year finds the interest in the demand for secondary education 
spreading to the remote districts. The county high school has 
not made any headway in Wisconsin, and probably will not do 
so because of the fact that in nearly every community there 
are already convenient high schools that serve the purpose. 
Township high schools exist in about a dozen places in the 
state. Many more would doubtless be desirable, but the idea has 
thus far not met with a hearty response from the people. The 
reason for this is that in most of the townships of the state there 
are villages and small cities as centers of population. These 
are frequently located on the edge or one corner of the township, 
and consequently there are many inhabitants situated so far from 
the high school building that it would be necessary, in case of 
attendance of the children, to make arrangement for board and 
lodging. They often claim that they may as well make arrange- 
ments for attendance at high schools in the district, or for attend- 
ance upon some of the state normal schools. Upon the whole, 
the best thing we have found for extending high school privileges 
and for stimulating country pupils to remain in school until they 
have completed the common school course, and then moving to 
the secondary schools, is the law requiring the township in which 
the pupil resides to pay the tuition at the high school. 41 

Minnesota : 42 The agitation for state aid to high schools began 
in Minnesota in the early seventies, but it did not result in any 

41 Report of N. E. A., 1905, p. 239. 

42 The latest available State Report was 1904. The latest available 
School Law was 1906. 



5° 



State Aid to High Schools 



legislation until 1878. There is reason to believe that the State 
Superintendent advocated a plan similar to that adopted by- 
Maine and Wisconsin, 43 but the legislature departed slightly from 
this. The law varied from that of these states in that it pro- 
vided for a direct subsidy to such schools as met the require- 
ments of the law, not binding them to any definite provision of 
funds or expenditure for maintenance on their own part. 44 The 
amount of the state subsidy provided by this act was $400.00 for 
each school. This amount remained unchanged for more than 
twenty years. To pay these subsidies the same act provided 
$9,000, but owing to the omission of the word " annually " in 
said law it became inoperative after the first year. The follow- 
ing legislature, however, remedied this defect. It will readily 
be seen that this new departure of Minnesota gave more encour- 
agement to the rural districts than did the laws of either Maine 
or Wisconsin. This law was also superior in that it provided 
for better supervision than did the law of Wisconsin. It required 
that each school receiving state aid should have a regularly 
constituted course of study that would prepare its graduates for 
the sub-freshman year of the state university. It further pro- 
vided that such schools should be inspected at least annually by 
the high school board. Every evidence points to the fact that 
these schools were originally created to fulfil the function of pre- 
paratory schools for the state university. 45 

In 1 88 1 these laws were all revised, and the act passed at that 
time practically forms the legal status upon which the high 
schools of the present are organized. This act provided for an 
ex-ofhcio high school board consisting of the State Superin- 
tendent, the Governor, and the President of the State University. 
This board was given practically full power as regarded admis- 
sion, courses of study, instruction, and the general administration 
of such schools. It was also empowered to employ an assistant 
examiner at a salary not to exceed three dollars per day, or fifty 
cents per hour, providing such individual was not receiving an 
additional salary from any state institution. All traveling ex- 
penses incurred in such inspection were also provided for. The 

43 Report of State Superintendent of Minnesota, 1878 and 1879. 

44 Acts of 1878, State of Minnesota, Chapter 92. 

46 See Various Reports of State Superintendents, Title "High Schools." 



State Aid to High Schools 51 

large administrative power vested in this board may be under- 
stood by a perusal of the following law: 

Powers of Board: 46 The high school board shall have 
full discretionary power to consider and act upon applica- 
tions of schools for state aid, and to prescribe the conditions 
upon which said aid shall be granted, and it shall be its duty to 
accept and aid such schools only as will, in its opinion, if aided, 
efficiently perform the services contemplated by law, but not 
more than five schools shall be aided in each county in any one 
year. Any school once accepted and continuing to comply with 
the law and the regulations of the board, made in pursuance 
thereof, shall be aided not less than three years. (1881, Ex. 
Sess., C. 61, Sec. 1, as amended 1883, C. 40, Sec. 1.) 

The above suggested board was required to have each school 
applying for state aid inspected at least annually. The only 
limitation of the powers of this board was as follows : 

Conditions of Receiving: 47 The said board shall require of 
the schools applying for such pecuniary aid, compliance 
with the following conditions, to wit: First — That there be 
regular courses of study, embracing all the branches prescribed 
as pre-requisite for admission to the collegiate department of 
the University of Minnesota. Second — That the said schools 
receiving pecuniary aid under this act shall at all times permit 
the said board of commissioners, or any of them, to visit and 
examine the classes pursuing the said preparatory courses. (Id. 
Section 3.) 

Under this act the law permitted the establishment of public 
high schools in cities, incorporated villages, or townships. They 
were required to admit pupils from any part of the state free of 
tuition, provided that such pupils not residing in the districts 
could pass an examination in all of the subjects required by law 
as requisite for a third grade teacher's certificate. 

As previously stated, the amount of state subsidy extended to 
each of such schools as complied with this law was $400.00 annu- 
ally. The annual appropriation for high schools at this time, 
1 881, was $20,000. This amount was increased from time to 
time to meet the demands of the constantly increasing number 
of high schools. 

* 8 School Law of Minnesota, Title VII., Paragraph 171, 1891. 
47 School Law of Minnesota, Title VII., Paragraph 165, 1891. 



52 State Aid to High Schools 

No important changes were made in the laws of the state 
relating to the high school problem until 1899 and 1901, when 
three important acts were passed, by these two legislatures, which 
have vitally affected the high schools of the state. The first of 
these acts to receive attention was that of changing the law 
which provided for state aid to elementary schools, the second 
was that of changing the law which provided for the amount of 
state aid to be extended to high schools, the third was that of 
making provision for the consolidation of rural schools, and the 
free transportation of pupils at public expense. Some other 
changes were made in the general high school law at this time, 
as will be pointed out later. 

The general act relating to high and graded schools entitled 
to state aid, divides them into four classes as follows : State 
high schools, state graded schools, state semi-graded, and state 
rural schools. 48 

The law provides for the reorganization of the high school 
board, as follows : The Governor is empowered to appoint a 
superintendent or a high school principal to take his place upon 
the board, the other two members to be the State Superintendent 
and the President of the State University. 49 The act of 1905 
increased this board to five, adding the President of the Board 
of Normal School Directors and one other person to be appointed 
by the Governor and ratified by the senate. 50 

The original act places the state graded schools under the 
direct supervision of this board, and provides that said board 
shall appoint an inspector of state high schools and also an in- 
spector of state graded schools. The salaries of these inspectors 
are to be fixed by this board. Provision is also made for the 
appointment, by this board, of a sufficient number of assistant 
graded school inspectors, and their maximum salary is fixed 
at three dollars per day or fifty cents per hour. 51 It is further 
provided that in all state high or graded schools an optional 
English or business course of study shall be offered and main- 

48 School Laws of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX. 

49 School Laws of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Section 219. 

50 School Laws 1907, Title XX., Section 219. 

51 School Laws 1901, Title XX., Section 220. 



State Aid to High Schools 53 

tainecl in addition to the course or courses of study required for 
admission into the university. The local board is, however, given 
power to add or cut out studies in the English or business 
course. 52 All state high schools must, in order to receive state 
aid, maintain school for at least nine months in the year. 53 The 
examination required for nonresident pupils must be in the 
branches taught in the eighth grade of the graded schools of 
the state. 

Each state high school was under the law of 1899 entitled to 
$1,000 annually. It was, however, provided that, in case the 
appropriation was not sufficient to supply the amount due the 
schools, a pro rata apportionment of the available funds was 
to be made. 

No more than seven high schools may receive state aid in 
any one county during any one year. A school which has com- 
plied with the law is entitled to aid for a period of not less than 
two years. Any graded school can at any time apply for promo- 
tion to the high school status, and, if in the judgment of the 
board of high school examination and inspection, it is entitled 
to such rating, it may receive the amount apportioned to such 
schools. In case there are already seven of these receiving aid 
in the county it will be entitled to the place of the school first 
having received such state aid. 54 
Any public school in any town or village or any township graded 
school 55 not entitled to aid as a state high school may receive 
$400.00 annually, 56 if it maintains nine months of school, is well- 
organized, and has at least four departments in charge of a 
principal and teacher having such qualifications as may be re- 
quired by the state board, provided such principal is a graduate 
of the advance department of a state normal school, or the 
academic or pedagogical department of some reputable college 

62 School Laws 1901, Title XX., Section 221. 

53 School Laws 1901, Title XX., Section 225. 

54 School Law of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Section 228. 

56 The legislature of 1897 provided for the establishment of township 
graded schools at local option and by local support. (Title XXI., School 
Law of Minnesota, 1901.) Some aid was given by the state to graded 
schools as early as 1897. The amount of state subsidy provided was 
$200 to each school complying with certain conditions. 

58 School Law of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Section 229. 



54 



State Aid to High Schools 



or state university, or has a first grade certificate, or state pro- 
fessional certificate. 57 

Each school is to be visited at least once each year by the 
graded school inspector. The law provides other minimum re- 
quirements similar to those for state high schools, and the state 
high school board is the final judge as to whether they are 
entitled to state aid. 

Any common school district, or public school in any hamlet or 
village, or any township graded school in the state not entitled 
to state aid as a high or graded school may, — if it maintains eight 
months of school each year, and if it supports at least two 
departments under the supervision of proficient teachers, at least 
one of whom holds a first grade certificate or a diploma from the 
advanced course of a normal school, — receive $200.00 annually as 
a direct subsidy from the state. These schools are under the direct 
supervision of the county superintendent, but the general rules 
and regulations under which they are administered are provided 
by the State Superintendent. 58 

Any common school district not located in a city, or incorpo- 
rated village, and not entitled to state aid as a high, graded, or 
semi-graded school may, if it maintains school eight months and 
employs a teacher with at least a first grade county certificate, 
receive as a direct subsidy from the state, $ioo.oo. 59 

Should the state appropriation at any time be too small to cover 
the legal demands of any one of these classes of institutions, it 
is provided that the fund shall be apportioned pro rata among 
the several schools entitled by law to state aid. 

In 1899 the appropriation for state high schools was fixed 
at $85,000 annually. In 1901 this amount was increased to 
$115,000. The same legislature appropriated for graded schools 
.$52,000 annually, for semi-graded schools $25,000 annually, and 
for state rural schools $60,000 annually. In 1903 these annual 
appropriations were again increased, for high schools to $217,000, 
for graded schools to $79,000, for semi-graded schools to $67,000, 
and for state rural schools to $100,000. 

In 1903 the legislature raised the amount of the state subsidy 
to high schools to $1,500, to state graded schools to $550, and 

57 School Law of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Section 230. 

88 School Laws of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Article IV. 

89 School Laws of Minnesota, 1901, Title XX., Article V. 



State Aid to High Schools 55 

to semi-graded schools to $250. In 1902-3 the pro rata distribu- 
tion of the amount appropriated for high schools amounted to 
just $1,380, and in 1905-6 it amounted to $1,182. Up to and 
including 1904 the graded schools received the full amount of 
the subsidy. 

A special subsidy is also paid by the state to such high schools 
as provide for instruction in the common branches of the elemen- 
tary school in a manner which shall be most helpful to persons 
intending to teach such branches. The general provisions for 
these courses rest with the state high school board. It is pro- 
vided that the class pursuing these subjects shall consist of at 
least eight members, and that a special teacher shall be employed 
to teach these branches. The amount of the special subsidy to 
each school complying with this act was, by the legislature of 
1895, fixed at $500 per annum. 00 In 1903 the amount of this 
subsidy was increased to $750 per annum. 

The legislature of 1901 completed the scheme for the better 
organization and administration of the state schools by permit- 
ting the consolidation of districts and the transportation of pupils 
at public expense. 61 For the academic year 1902-3 seven counties 
in the state spent for transportation of pupils $2,589.08. The 
following year twenty-five counties spent $4,257.64 for the same 
purpose. 62 During the decade ending with the academic year 
1905-6 there has been a constant and very rapid growth of 
high schools in the state, the number increasing from 99 
to 192. During the same period the enrollment in these 
schools has slightly more than doubled, increasing from 11,038 
to 22,106, and the number of graduates has also a little more 
than doubled, increasing from 1,357 to 2,783. 

Beginning with 1899-1900, the number of graded schools has 
increased from no to 145, and the number of semi-graded schools 
has increased from 190 to 270. Semi-graded schools are being 
continually promoted to graded schools, and graded schools are 
likewise developing new high schools and being promoted to 
that class. 



80 School Laws of Minnesota, 1903, Title XX., Section 247. 

91 School Laws of Minnesota, 1901, Title XIX. 

82 Report of State Superintendent, Minnesota, 1904, p. 12. 



CHAPTER VI 

STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

THE MAINE SYSTEM AS MODIFIED BY NORTH DAKOTA, PENNSYL- 
VANIA, FLORIDA AND MASSACHUSETTS 

North Dakota: 1 North Dakota has from its admission into 
the Union provided for the organization of special district high 
schools. The law provides that any district, containing four or 
more common schools and having an enumeration of sixty or 
more persons of school age residing therein, may organize itself 
into a special district for high school purposes. These schools 
were at first entirely supported by local taxation, but they were 
in a general way under the supervision of the state and county 
just as were the elementary schools. In 1895 the legislature 
placed them under the supervision of a special high school board, 
consisting of the Governor, the State Superintendent of Schools, 
and the President of the State University. This board was 
permitted to classify the schools, and place those reaching a 
certain standard of efficiency in the class known as state high 
schools. There was no premium placed upon entrance into this 
class except that the graduates of such schools were permitted 
to enter the university without special examination. The law 
was in effect that of Minnesota except that it carried with it 
no provision for state aid. 2 

The above act was reconstructed by the legislature of 1899. 
The high school board was empowered to classify the schools 
into high schools of the first class, second class, and third class, 
as follows : High schools of the first class were required to give 
a minimum course of four years' work, as provided by said State 
Board, and were entitled to receive from the state $175.00 annu- 
ally. High schools of the second class were required to give a 
minimum course of three years' work, as provided by said State 
Board, and were entitled to receive from the state $140.00 annu- 
ally. High schools of the third class were required to give a 

1 The latest Law available was 1907. The latest State Report available 
was 1905-6. 

2 School Laws of North Dakota, 1897. 



State Aid to High Schools 57 

minimum course of two years' work, as provided by said State 
Board, and were entitled to receive from the state $100.00 
annually. 3 

For the purpose of meeting these demands and to provide for 
the expense of supervision, the legislature appropriated $4,000 
annually. It also provided for a pro rata distribution of these 
funds in case there was not enough to meet the demands of 
the schools. 

This law was taken from that of Minnesota, and differs from 
the aforesaid act only in that it provides for three classes of high 
schools and that it provides for only three high schools in any 
one county. 

In 1903 the legislature increased the appropriation for high 
school aid to $10,000, and increased the amount of subsidy, for 
schools of the first class to $400.00 annually, for schools of the 
second class to $300.00 annually, and for schools of the third 
class to $200.00 annually. 4 The following legislature, 1905, 
increased the general appropriation for high schools to $25,000 
annually, and provided that high schools of the first class should 
receive $800.00 annually, and that high schools of the second 
class should receive $600.00 annually. The act seems to have 
made no provision for high schools of the third class. 5 

In 1907 the general appropriation was further increased to 
$45,000 annually, and it was provided that high schools of the 
first class should receive $800.00 annually, that those of the sec- 
ond class should receive $500.00 annually, and that those of the 
third class should receive $300.00 annually. 6 

The general effect of the high school law of North Dakota 
may best be shown by quoting from the report of State Super- 
intendent Stockwell for the year 1905-6. 7 

" There are now thirty-one first class schools with four year 
courses and fifteen second class schools with three year courses, 
receiving aid from the state. The number of first class schools 
has doubled during the past two years. This is an indication of 
splendid progress. The enrollment has greatly increased; the 

3 Legislative Acts of North Dakota, 1899. 

4 Legislative Acts of North Dakota, 1903. 

6 Legislative Acts of North Dakota, 1905. 
"Legislative Acts of North Dakota, 1907. 

7 P. 24. 



58 State Aid to High Schools 

equipment so far as laboratories go, has materially improved. 
The standard of work is higher and the quality of teaching 
better. The existence of the high school board has been amply 
justified by the development of the high schools of the state." 

Previous to 1907-8 the general appropriations have not been 
sufficient to meet the demands of all the schools, consequently 
the funds have been distributed pro rata to those of the differ- 
ent classes. 

Pennsylvania: 8 In 1895 the legislature of Pennsylvania 
passed an act permitting the establishment of rural high schools 
in joint districts, in townships, and in joint townships. The act 
provided for first, second, and third class high schools. First 
class high schools were required to give a four years' course, 
second class high schools were required to give a three years' 
course, and third class high schools were required to give a 
two years' course. 

High schools of the first class were to receive from the state not 
to exceed $800.00 per annum, those of the second class were to re- 
ceive from the state not to exceed $600.00 per annum, and those 
of the third class were to receive from the state not to exceed 
$400.00 per annum. Owing to the fact that the legislature pro- 
vided no funds for the payment of these subsidies, the act was 
entirely inoperative up to 1901. It could not be definitely ascer- 
tained whether this was due to neglect upon the part of the 
legislature, or whether it was assumed that these subsidies would 
be paid out of the regular state appropriation for public schools. 
However this may have been, the State Superintendent did not 
use any of the state public school fund for meeting these 
obligations. 

In 1901 the legislature in its general appropriation for public 
schools provided an item of $25,000 annually to meet these obliga- 
tions. This amount was increased in 1903 to $50,000, and in 
1905 to $100,000. 9 

Other serious defects in the law are the failure to provide for 
adequate supervision, and legitimate classification. Practically 
both supervision and classification are left with the local authori- 



8 The latest Laws and State Reports available were those of 1907. 
8 Legislative Acts of Pennsylvania, 1895, 1901, 1903, and 1905. 



State Aid to High Schools 59 

ties. The law does, however, provide that at least one teacher 
must be employed who is capable of teaching all of the subjects 
commonly classified as secondary. One is naturally led to wonder 
how many of these schools are complying with the letter of the 
law in this matter. 

The most serious defect in the workings of this law in Pennsyl- 
vania is after all the failure of the legislature to provide sufficient 
funds to carry out its obligations to these schools. When a suffi- 
cient appropriation has not been made to meet their legal de- 
mands a pro rata apportionment is made. The available funds 
have never been sufficient to pay the whole amount allowed by 
law, and these funds have not been increased in proportion to the 
increase in the number of schools entitled to state aid, and as a 
result of this, the schools never know what to expect in the way of 
such aid. A sudden increase in the number of the schools en- 
titled to this aid invariably results in a large decrease of 
available funds. Some notion of the workings of this law may 
he secured by reference to the following table : 









TABLE I 10 










Rural High School Statistics 










Pennsylv 


ANIA 






Year 
1902 
I903 
1904 


Number 
first class 

I 

6 
9 


Amount 
received 

$600 OO 
328 00 
480 00 


Number 
second class 

39 

50 
53 


Amount 
received 

$450 OO 
246 OO 
360 00 


Number 
third class 

36 

65 

IOI 


Amount 
received 

$300 00 
164 00 
240 00 


1905 
1906 


11 

12 


424 00 
760 00 


52 
43 


318 00 
570 OO 


135 
179 


212 OO 
380 OO 


1907 


13 


600 00 


44 


450 00 


244 


300 OO 



Notwithstanding the uncertainty of the amount of state aid to 
he expected, the growth in the number of these schools has been 
remarkable, and with a more liberal appropriation and an in- 
creased subsidy to the various classes of schools an equally rapid 
development in their efficiency would undoubtedly occur. 

In 1903 an act passed the legislature permitting children re- 
siding in a school district where graded schools exist to attend 

10 Reports of State Superintendent, 1902-1907. 



60 State Aid to High Schools 

a school of a higher grade in an adjoining district at the expense 
of the board of education in the district wherein they reside. 
Four years later another act was passed which referred directly 
to high schools and high school pupils, and which provided for 
free tuition, and for free text books at the expense of the district 
in which the attending pupils reside. 11 

Florida: 12 The Florida legislatures of 1903 and 1905 pro- 
vided for the extending of state aid to two classes of high schools 
and to rural graded schools. 13 The original bill carried with it 
provision for a state inspector of high schools, but this was 
un fortunately lost during the passage of the bill and the work 
was delegated to the office of the State Superintendent of Schools 
with no provision for extra assistance. The act, in addition to 
making some general requirements for the classification of such 
schools, provides for their general regulation by the state board 
of education. The superintendent was also empowered to appoint 
a committee to act with him in the preparation of a course of 
study for state high schools. 

A senior high school is a graded school having a four year 
high school course, as provided by the state board of education. 
A junior high school is a graded school having at least a two 
year high school course, as provided by said state board. A 
rural graded school is a school, located at least three miles 
distant from any town or city of more than five hundred inhabi- 
tants, providing instruction in both the intermediate and grammar 
grades during eight months of the year, and conducted by two 
or more qualified teachers in buildings with suitable equipment 
owned by the district. The state board also provides that each 
such school must have an average attendance of at least fifty 
pupils. This latter requirement was, however, waived for the 
academic year 1903-1904, because of an epidemic of contagious 
disease. The act also provides that no school shall receive state 
aid under more than one of the above classifications. It is pro- 
vided that senior high schools may receive $600.00 per annum, 
that junior high schools may receive $360.00 per annum, and 
that rural graded schools may receive $200.00 per annum. The 

11 School Laws, Pennsylvania, 1907, Sections CXLIII. and CXV. 

12 The latest Laws available were those of 1907. The latest State 
Reports available were those of 1905-6. 

13 Legislative Acts, 1903, Chapter 5206; 1905, Chapter 5382. 



State Aid to High Schools 61 

law provides that this subsidy shall be paid to these schools for 
a period of at least three years. The total annual appropriation 
made by the legislature to meet these demands was $50,ooo. 14 
This amount was increased in 1907 to $65, 000. 15 

The stimulating effect of this law may be readily seen when 
we observe the increase in the number of high schools during the 
first year of its operation. According to statistics compiled by 
the writer from the reports of the various county superin- 
tendents, 16 the number of high schools in the state in 1903 was 
only 48, but during the following year 33 others were organized. 
As will appear from the statistics to follow, these schools did not 
all receive state aid as high schools. Some of them were probably 
adjudged below grade, but undoubtedly most of them at the 
present time are receiving such aid, and in all probability all of 
them have increased their standards of efficiency. 

The following figures 17 will clearly show that these schools 
are constantly advancing from class to class. The numbers of 
first grade high schools for the years 1904, 1905 and 1906 were 
26, 30, and 41. The numbers of second grade high schools for 
the same year were 47, 56, and 65. The numbers of rural 
graded schools were 43, 52, and 41. Thus it will appear that 
the first grade high schools have increased more than 57 per cent, 
in two years, and that the second grade high schools have in- 
creased more than 38 per cent, during the same period. 

The consolidation of schools and the free transportation of 
pupils antedate the laws for state aid to high and graded schools, 
and this factor no doubt entered, in some degree, into the rapid 
development of high and graded schools in rural districts. A 
consolidation of schools, and the free transportation of pupils 
have occurred in somewhat more than one-half of the counties 
of the state. 18 

Massachusetts : 19 Massachusetts occupies rather a peculiar 
position in the history of American education. She has always 

14 Report of State Superintendent of Florida, 1904. 

16 Legislative Acts, Florida, 1907. 

Ifl Report of State Superintendent, 1904, pp. 241-371. 

17 Reports of State Superintendent, 1904-5-6. 

18 Report of State Superintendent of Florida, 1904, pp. 248-371. 

19 The latest Laws and State Reports available have been those of 1907. 



62 State Aid to High Schools 

recognized the need of popular education and has secured it 
largely by compulsory legislation, forcing the various towns to 
comply with these laws to the extent of their various capacities, 
if indeed, she has not overburdened some of them. Her method 
has been to pass a compulsory law and then when the various 
sections have adjusted themselves to these conditions pass 
another pressing them still further. 

The great state of Massachusetts has not until recent years 
recognized her full responsibility in matters of public education. 
While she has always led in placing a high educational standard 
before the country, she has done very little as a commonwealth 
toward the bearing of the actual burden of free public education. 
Within her borders many have been offered the very best educa- 
tional opportunities, while on the other hand many others have 
been offered but the poorest of such opportunities. 

In the further discussion of this subject we shall quote directly 
from Frank A. Hill, sometime secretary of the Massachusetts 
State Board of Education. 

" The year 1824 saw low water mark in our educational 
history. There were 172 towns that should have been supporting 
grammar schools under the law of 1789. Very few of them 
were, however, doing so. Accordingly the legislature exempted 
all towns under 5,000 inhabitants from maintaining them. That 
is to say, it exempted 165 of those 172 towns, all of them but 7. 
It was no longer only 100 families in the town, as in 1647, no 
longer 200 families, as in 1789, but practically 1,000 families, 
that created the obligation to maintain a grammar school. Thus 
the grammar school was nearly extinguished and its very name 
began to fade in oblivion. The altar fires of high ideals, however, 
were kept alive in the academies. It was the very success of 
these academies that, in a way, checked their growth and led, 
with some notable exceptions, to their reduced importance or 
their demise. It was largely because of them that the demand 
for free secondary education revived. It became a burning ques- 
tion everywhere, Why should not the children of all the people 
enjoy advantages equal to those of the favored few?" 

" The reaction from the legislation of 1824 came quick and 
sharp. In 1826 the legislature ordered that towns of 4,000 
people should maintain a high school of the first grade: towns 



State Aid to High Schools 63 

of 500 families, a high school of the second grade. Here was a 
partial return to the policy of the fathers, the beginning of educa- 
tional repentance. The original difference between the two 
grades was that the first taught Latin and Greek while the second 
did not; the first connected with the colleges in the traditional 
way, the second ignored the colleges and was ignored by them. 
And now for some years the policy of the State was singularly 
vacillating. There was a locking of horns between the pro- 
gressive party and the conservative. The law of 1826 had been 
in force but a short time when the requirement of a second 
grade high school in the case of towns with 500 families was 
repealed; in 1836 it was restored; in 1840 it was practically 
repealed again ; and in 1848 it was restored again, this time to 
stay until another advance became possible. So we see 
that it took just twenty-two years to clinch the legis- 
lation of 1826. 

" For many years after 1826 the high school outlook was far 
from encouraging. The law was explicit enough, but towns con- 
sulted their pleasure about obeying it. In 1838, for instance, out 
of 43 towns required to maintain high schools only 14 were 
doing so. But the upward movement, long delayed, began at 
last. The missionaries of the movement were Horace Mann and 
his fellow- workers. In 1852 there were 64 high schools; in 
1866, 156; in 1876, 216; in 1886, 229; to-day there are 261. 

" In 1 89 1 the State took a step which placed it, for the first 
time, in advance of the policy of the founders. It ordered that 
free high school tuition thereafter should be the legal right of 
every properly qualified child in the Commonwealth. Every 
town, without exception, must furnish it either in its own high 
school or in that of a neighbor. Other States have gone beyond 
Massachusetts in making the college or university a part of the 
public school system, but Massachusetts was the first State in 
the Union, if not the first in the world, to make it compulsory 
on its towns to provide free high school instruction. Such 
compulsion bore with hardship, of course, on many small and 
feeble towns. Hence the policy in such cases of State reimburse- 
ment of high school tuition payments." 20 

20 Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, 1897-8, pp.. 
366-8. 



64 State Aid to High Schools 

As suggested in the above quotation the poorer towns could 
not well meet the demands of the law of 1891 which required 
them to pay the tuition of pupils in case they did not provide a 
high school of their own. As a result the legislature of 1895 
passed its first law reimbursing these poorer towns to the extent 
of the amount they had expended for the tuition of their children 
in outside high schools of a rank satisfactory to the State Board 
of Education. The law provided that towns with a property 
valuation of less than $500,000, and having no high school of 
their own, should upon application to the proper authorities, 
receive reimbursements from the state in the amounts actually 
expended in the payments of the tuitions of pupils in the towns 
who were in attendance upon neighboring high schools. The law 
further provided that the town could, if it so desired, pay for the 
transportation of pupils to and from such high school or schools. 
This same legislature passed an act permitting towns having 
no high schools of their own to pay the tuition of their children 
in any academy located within their boundaries, provided such 
academies had been approved by the State Board of Education. 21 

This period marked a new departure in the state's policy 
toward secondary instruction. Previous to this time she had 
tried both encouragement and force, but now she began the 
policy of extending financial support to the institution. 

Mr. Hill continues as follows : " In 1898 the legislature 
abolished the distinction between first grade high schools and 
second, the people having previously abolished it in most towns. 
The aims of the high school were for the first time specifically 
stated, — to give such instruction as may be required for general 
purposes of training and culture as well as to prepare pupils for 
admission to the state normal schools, to high technical schools 
and to colleges. The length of the high school curriculum was for 
the first time fixed ; there must be at least one course four years 
long. And to ease somewhat the burden of this newly defined 
high school upon the small towns, it was made permissible for 
them to arrange that a portion of the high school instruction 
may be given in the high school of another town. A town, for 
instance, may maintain a high school for a part of the course it 
it will pay for the rest of the course elsewhere." 22 



21 Legislative Acts of State of Massachusetts, 1895. 

22 Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, 1897-8, p. 368. 



State Aid to High Schools 65 

In 1902 Massachusetts took the final step in the recognition 
of the principle of state aid to secondary education. The new law- 
is in effect about as follows : Any town supporting less than 
500 families and having a property valuation of less than 
$750,000 is entitled to receive from the state treasury the entire 
amount expended for the payment of the tuition of all children 
of the town in attendance upon neighboring high schools ; a town 
supporting less than 500 families and having a property valua- 
tion to exceed $750,000 is entitled to receive from the state 
treasury one-half of all moneys expended for tuition of all chil- 
dren of the town in attendance upon neighboring high schools; 
and a town of less than 500 families maintaining a high school 
of the approved type, employing two or more teachers is entitled 
to receive $300.00 annually from the state treasury. It is pro- 
vided, however, that no town the valuation of which averages 
a larger sum for each pupil in the average membership of its 
public schools than the corresponding average for the common- 
wealth shall receive any moneys from the commonwealth under 
the provisions of this act. 23 

In 1906 the amount of the direct subsidy to high schools was 
increased from $300.00 to $500.00 per annum. 2 * 

A school employing less than two teachers is under this act 
not entitled to receive any state aid. The intention of this is 
undoubtedly to hinder the organization of high schools employ- 
ing but one teacher, the educational authorities deeming it 
impossible for one teacher to teach effectively all of the subjects 
of a four year high school curriculum. This provision is prob- 
ably wise in so far as it relates to the four year high school, but 
the wisdom of compelling the town to give a four year course 
in order to receive state aid is to be questioned. Most of the 
high schools of the country have passed through the one, two and 
three year stages of development. 

As stated elsewhere towns containing 500 families are required 
to maintain high schools and other towns may do so and, in case 
they meet certain requirements, may receive annually state aid in 
the form of a $500.00 subsidy. 



23 Revised Laws of Massachusetts, Chapter 43, Section 3, as annotated 
by Chapter 443, Acts of 1902. 

24 Legislative Acts, 1906, Chapter 200, State of Massachusetts. 



66 State Aid to High Schools 

Twenty-six towns received the state grant in 1903, thirty-four 
received it in 1904, thirty-six received it in 1905, thirty-seven 
received it in 1906, and forty received it in 1907. The whole 
amount expended by the state, for the above, in 1907 
was $20,000. 

All towns not maintaining high schools are required to make 
provision for high school instruction in other towns, and are 
under certain conditions previously stated, reimbursed for one- 
half or the whole amount of the cost of such instruction. 

In 1907 the state reimbursed 97 towns for tuition paid for 
1,061 pupils. Twenty of these received but one-half of the 
amount expended for tuition. The whole amount expended by 
the state upon this account was, for the year, $36,613.94. 

Twenty-four towns had a valuation per pupil in excess of the 
state average and were consequently not reimbursed. Twenty 
towns did not avail themselves of the law, but ten of these main- 
tained high schools of their own without state aid or had the 
benefit of local academies. Eleven towns in the state in 1907 
had no pupils in the high school. These towns contained 712 
children between the ages of five and fifteen, or probably con- 
siderably more than 300 of high school age. 

The tuition rates for the year 1907 varied from $20.00 to 
$79.30 per pupil. The average rate was $42.07. 

" That the difference in rate represents fairly the difference 
in the value of the instruction furnished must be doubted. Some 
of the charges are certainly too high for the advantages offered, 
and the Board of Education will be compelled in the near future 
to bring about some readjustment of these rates." 25 



Report of the Board of Education, Massachusetts, 1907, p. 136. 



CHAPTER VII 

STATES THAT USE OTHER THAN THE DIRECT SUBSIDY 

PLAN IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF STATE AID 

TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

CALIFORNIA, NEW YORK, RHODE ISLAND AND WASHINGTON 

California: 1 The history of the development of rural high 
schools in California properly dates back to 1891 when the legis- 
lature passed a bill permitting a union of districts for high 
school purposes. 

Mr. J. B. McChesney points out the fact that there was some 
recognition of the necessity for universal secondary educational 
opportunities as early as 1851. He quotes as follows from the 
proceedings of the legislature of 1851 : 2 

"Article II, Section 5 : Not less than 60% of the amount paid 
each district shall be expended in teachers' salaries; the balance 
may, at the discretion of the district, be expended in building or 
repairing school houses, purchasing a library or apparatus for the 
support of a high school." 

He states further, that he could find no evidence of the exist- 
ence of a high school at this time and that the following legisla- 
ture enacted a new school law which made no mention of 
high schools. 

The same authority goes on to state that, " In 1855 tne school 
law was enacted for a third time under the following title: 
Act to establish, support and regulate common schools and re- 
peal former acts concerning the same.' Section 17 defined the 
duties and powers of trustees as follows :" 

" They may cause the common schools within their respective 
jurisdictions to be divided into Primary, Grammar, and High 
School Departments, and employ competent teachers for the 
instruction of the different departments, whenever they may deem 
such division advisable, provided there be sufficient means for 
all departments, and if not, then in the order in which they are 
herein named, Primary School having preference." 

1 The latest Laws available were those of 1907. The latest State 
Reports available were those of 1906. 

2 J. B. McChesney, Monographs on Education in California. 



68 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 

The fact remains, however, that but few high schools were 
organized while this law was in operation and these only in the 
large cities. It is quite probable that most of the towns and 
cities found it difficult enough to raise sufficient money to sup- 
port primary and grammar schools without attempting to support 
high schools, though the law did permit the use of any excess 
state funds for the purpose. According to McChesney the above 
law remained in force for about seventeen years, there being no 
effective changes made until 1872. 

The new constitution, adopted 1879, explicitly provided that 
the state school funds could not be used for high school purposes. 
Article IX, Section 6 reads as follows: 3 

The public school system shall include primary and grammar 
schools, and such high schools, evening schools, normal schools, 
and technical schools as may be established by legislature, or by 
municipal or district authority; but the entire revenue received 
from the state school fund, and the state school tax shall be 
applied exclusively to the support of primary and grammar 
schools. 

This legalized the establishment of high schools by both munici- 
palities and districts which, in practice however, only affected 
municipalities, since the smaller districts were exhausting all 
their efforts in supporting the primary and grammar schools. 
It is probably worthy of note that for many years in California 
the primary and grammar schools taken together covered a 
period of nine years which practically included one year's high 
school work. This enabled the municipality or district to use 
the state funds for at least this one year of the high school course. 

As in many of the other states the normal schools of Cali- 
fornia have to at least some extent served as rural secondary 
schools. The first of these schools was established as early 
as 1862 and was at first located in San Francisco. 4 In 1870 
it was moved to San Jose, its present location. While located in 
the larger city it did not serve to any great extent as a secondary 
school for rural pupils, but when located in San Jose at the 
time the centre of the most thickly populated agricultural region 
of the state it certainly gave secondary educational opportunities 

1 Constitution of California, 1879, Article IX., Section 6. 

* History of the State Normal School at San Jose, California, 1889. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 69 

to a large number of rural youth. The state now supports five 
normal schools well distributed over the territory. One of these, 
only, never admitted pupils direct from the grammar -schools. 
Another ceased to do so only after 1900, another two or three 
years later, and the remaining two still admit them to prepara- 
tory courses. This raising of requirements for admission has 
advanced just in proportion as high school privileges have been 
extended in the regions where such schools are located. 

Many communities, feeling the need of a more advanced educa- 
tion than that provided by the grammar school proper, sought 
to extend and did extend the work by the addition of a course 
known as the " grammar school course." This institution was 
in effect a sort of high school and even went so far as to prepare 
students for the state university. The institution was undoubt- 
edly created as such to avoid the constitutional provision which 
prohibited the use of any part of the state funds for the support 
of high schools. 

The attitude of the legislature toward these " grammar school 
courses " is shown by the act of 1887. This session amended 
Chapter CVII, Section 444 to read as follows : 

The state controller must between the dates aforesaid, also 
estimate the amount necessary to raise the sum of three dollars 
for each pupil enrolled in the grammar school course in the 
several districts of the state where such course is taught. This 
amount to be in addition to the amount above prescribed. The 
amount so raised shall constitute the Grammar School 
Course Fund. 

Section 1625 of the same chapter reads : 

Trustees of school districts, where the grammar school course 
is taught, shall admit in such course all persons as follows : 

1. Residents of the district who were enrolled in the gram- 
mar grade. 

2. Graduates in the grammar grade of schools in the county. 

3. All others, residents of the county, who pass the required 
examination. 

The creation of this law was undoubtedly intended ; first, to 
give a legal status to these schools which had been illegally using 
state funds for their support; second, to provide means whereby 
such schools might legally receive state aid without causing any 
decrease in the current state fund for the support of the lower 
schools. The recognition of such schools as Grammar School 



7o 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 



Courses rather than as high schools was undoubtedly to avoid 
the constitutional provision under Article IX, Section 6 as quoted 
above. This is evidenced by the fact that the legislature of 1891, 
under pressure, repealed the act as being unconstitutional. 

The same legislature in two separate acts 5 provided for ; first, 
the establishment of one or more county high schools in each 
of the counties of the state, by submitting the matter to the 
legal voters of the county a majority of whom could establish 
and provide for the maintenance of the same; second, the estab- 
lishment of high schools in towns or cities of fifteen hundred or 
more inhabitants, or in two or more adjoining districts by sub- 
mitting the proposition to the legal voters of the city or town or 
union of districts, a majority of whom could establish and pro- 
vide for the maintenance of the same. 

Dr. Cubberley states that there were but twelve high schools 
in California in 1885, and but twenty-four in 1890. He further 
states that this number had increased to one hundred and twenty 
by the year 1900.° In considering the growth of these schools 
in California it must be remembered that many of them grew out 
of the institutions known as the " grammar school courses " 
that were carried on in the state previous to the legislation of 
1 89 1 which practically made them illegal. According to McChes- 
ney the number of high schools in the state had increased in 
1902 to one hundred and thirty-nine, and in 1903 to one hundred 
and forty-three. 7 

Attendant upon the entire local support of high schools as 
provided by the enactment of 1891, there gradually grew up a 
strong sentiment for some legislation leading to the state aid of 
secondary schools. This agitation resulted in the legislature 
of 1 90 1 submitting to the people an amendment to the consti- 
tution of the state, the aim of which was to legalize the state 
provision for the support of high schools through the levying of 
a high school tax. At the general election of 1902 this amend- 
ment was adopted by the people by an overwhelming majority. 
As a consequence the legislature of 1903 passed an act for the 

6 Amendment to the Codes, 1891, Chapters LXI. and CXXXII., 
California. 

8 Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment, p. 23. 

7 McChesney, Monograph on Education in California, Secondary- 
Education, p. 15. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 71 

state support of high schools. Section 1 and Section 5 of this 
act read as follows: 

Section i. s There is hereby levied annually for the fifty-fifth 
and fifty-sixth fiscal years, ending respectively June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and four, and June thirtieth, nineteen hundred 
and five, an ad valorem tax of one and one-half cents upon every 
hundred dollars of the value of the taxable property of the state, 
which tax shall be collected by the several officers charged with 
the collection of state taxes, in the same manner and at the same 
time as other state taxes are collected, upon all and any class of 
property, which tax is for the support of regularly established 
high schools of the state. And it is further enacted that, begin- 
ning with the fifty-seventh fiscal year, to wit : July first, nineteen 
hundred and six, it shall be the duty of the State Controller, annu- 
ally, between the tenth day of August and the first day of Septem- 
ber, at the time that he is required to estimate the amount 
necessary for other school taxes, to estimate the amount neces- 
sary to be levied for the support of high schools. This amount 
he shall estimate by determining the amount required at fifteen 
dollars per pupil in average daily attendance in all the duly es- 
tablished high schools of the state for the last preceding school 
year, as certified to him by the State Superintendent of Public 
instruction. This amount the State Controller, between the dates 
above given, must certify to the State Board of Equalization. 

Section 5. 9 The money in said State High School Fund shall 
be apportioned to the high schools of the state by the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction in the following manner: 
He shall apportion one third of the annual amount among the 
county, district, city, union, or joint union high schools of the 
state, irrespective of the number of pupils enrolled or in average 
daily attendance therein, except as hereinafter provided; the 
remaining two thirds of the annual amount he shall apportion 
among such schools pro rata upon the basis of average daily at- 
tendance as shown by the official reports of the County or City 
and County Superintendents for the last preceding school year; 
provided, that such high schools have been organized under the 
law of the state, or have been recognized as existing under the 
high school laws of the state and have maintained the grade of 
instruction required by law of the high schools ; and provided, 
that no school shall be eligible to a share of said State High 
School Fund that has not during the last preceding school year 
employed at least two regularly certificated high school teachers 
for a period of no less than one hundred and eighty days with 
no less than twenty pupils in average daily attendance for such 

8 School Law of California, 1903, p. 61. 

8 School Law of State of California, 1903, p. 62. 



72 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 

length of time, except in newly established high schools wherein 
the minimum average daily attendance for the first year of one 
hundred and eighty days may be but twelve pupils and but one 
teacher ; and provided, that before receiving state aid, each school 
shall furnish satisfactory evidence to the Superintendent of Pub- 
lic Instruction of the possession of a reasonably good equipment 
of building, laboratory, and library, and of having maintained, 
the preceding school year, proper high school instruction for a 
term of at least one hundred and eighty days; provided further, 
that the foregoing provisions relating to the average daily at- 
tendance and the number of teachers employed shall not operate 
to disqualify any legally established high school existing at the 
date of the passage of this Act from receiving a share of said 
State High School Fund until July i, 1904. 

Section 8 provides that the above fund may be used only for 
the payment of the salaries of teachers. 10 

Section 9 provides that high schools receiving state aid shall 
within one year after first beginning to receive such aid, provide 
at least one course of study such as will prepare pupils for 
admission to one of the colleges of the University of California, 
and in order that this purpose may be carried out the said high 
schools shall be subject to inspection by a duly accredited repre- 
sentative of said university. This section also provides that 
pupils qualified to enter a high school and residing in a territory 
wherein no high school exists shall have the right to attend any 
high school that receives state aid without the payment of a 
tuition fee, if such schools have room or accommodations 
for them. 10 

The latter provision, during the two years it was in effect, 
led to much dissatisfaction in certain communities, supporting 
large and reputable high schools surrounded by thickly popu- 
lated regions without high school facilities. As a result the 
legislature of 1905 amended this law so as to provide that in 
the future no high school receiving state aid should charge any 
pupil residing outside of said high school district a tuition fee in 
excess of the difference between the cost per pupil for the mainte- 
nance of such school and the amount per pupil received during 
the school year from the state. 1X 

That part of the law requiring every high school receiving 
state aid to provide at least one course of study such as would 

10 School Law of State of California, 1903, p. 64. 

11 Senate Bill No. 266, Sections 1 and 9, Session of 1905, Cailfornia. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 73 

admit its graduates to one of the colleges of the university was 
also stricken out in 1905. 12 

Section 1 was amended by the same legislature as follows: 12 
After July first nineteen hundred and five, the amount of state 
high school tax to be levied is to be determined by calculating 
fifteen dollars per pupil in average daily attendance in all the 
duly established high schools of the state for the last preceding 
school year. 

The amount of the direct bonus received from the state by each 
of the accredited high schools was for 1904, $543.93. The 
amount apportioned upon the average daily attendance basis 
was for the same year about $11.18 per pupil. 13 This would 
amount to a little over $1,000 for a school having an average 
daily attendance of forty-one pupils. 

There were in California, 1903, one hundred and forty-three 
high schools entitled to receive state aid. Of these thirty-seven 
were joint or union high schools, seven were county high schools, 
and the remainder were town or city high schools. 14 In 1906 the 
number of union high schools had increased to twelve, and the 
number of county high schools had increased to fifteen. 15 

For the academic year 1905-6 each high school in the state 
received as a direct bonus the sum of $502.68. The amount 
apportioned upon the basis of average daily attendance was $8.51 
per pupil. 16 Upon this basis a high school to receive $1,000 
per year from the state would have to have an average daily 
attendance of a little more than fifty-eight pupils. 

New York: 17 The laws of New York provide for the estab- 
lishment of union free schools by a majority vote of the qualified 
electors of the school district or districts at a meeting or meetings 
called especially for that purpose. 18 Provision is also made under 

12 Senate Bill No. 266, Sections 1 and 9, Session of 1905, California. 

13 Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment, p. 231. 

u McChesney, Monograph on Secondary Education, in California, 
pp. 23-8. 

15 Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1905 and 1906, 
p. 208. 

18 Report of State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1905 and 
1906, p. 283. 

17 The latest Laws available were those of 1906. The latest State 
Report was that of 1908. 

18 Consolidated School Laws of New York, 1905, Title VII., Article 1., 
Sections 1, 2 and 5. 



74 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 

the same act for the establishment, by the board of education, of 
an academic department in any of these schools. These institu- 
tions are supported and administered just as the district schools, 
both in their academic and elementary departments. The law 
specifically provides, however, that all moneys apportioned from 
the state fund to these union schools, other than that especially 
provided for the academic department, shall be applied to the 
department below the said academic department. 19 

The state provides a literature fund to be applied entirely to 
the support of secondary education. The apportionment of these 
moneys is at present placed in the hands of the Commissioner of 
Education. 20 It also provides a library fund which may be 
participated in by the academic departments of cities, academies, 
and union districts. 

These funds which are included in a large state appropriation 
for cities, academies, academic departments, and public school 
libraries is apportioned as follows: Each city, each union dis- 
trict, and each nonsectarian academy maintaining an academic 
department according to the laws, ordinances, and regulations 
of the regents of the university shall receive $100.00 for each 
such academic department maintained therein. Each nonsec- 
tarian private academy shall receive an amount equal to the 
amount locally raised for books, pictures, and apparatus, pro- 
vided that the state shall not contribute to any one such academy 
an amount in excess of v$25o.oo for any one year. Each union 
school district maintaining an academic department shall receive 
an amount equal to that raised locally, provided that the 
state shall not contribute to any one such school an amount 
in excess of $268.00 for any one year, and $2.00 additional for 
each teacher employed in said district. After providing similarly 
for academic departments in cities, for tuition for nonresident 
pupils and for libraries in common school districts, the remainder 
of the fund is apportioned upon the basis of aggregate days 
attendance of academic pupils. 21 

The secondary schools of the state appear to receive indirect 
aid from the common school fund as follows: The law provides 

19 Consolidated School Laws of New York, 1905, Title VII., Article 4, 
Section 15, Paragraph 10, and Section 23. 

"Consolidated School Laws of New York, 1905, Chapter 586, p. 195. 
11 Session Laws of State of New York, 1906, Chapter 683. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 75 

that each district having an assessed valuation of $20,000 or less 
shall receive $200.00, that each district having an assessed valu- 
ation of $40,000 or less shall receive $175.00, that each district 
having a valuation of $60,000 or less shall receive $150.00, and 
that each remaining district shall receive $i25.oo. 22 For each 
additional teacher employed after the first, the district is entitled 
to receive $ioo.oo. 23 

The state law also provides for the free tuition of pupils re- 
siding in districts where no academic department exists, and 
provides for their admission into such schools as support an 
academic department without the payment of any tuition other 
than that provided by the state law. The amount of this tuition 
is set by the state at $20.00 per annum per pupil. 24 

It appears that the legislature of 1907 slightly changed the 
above act so that at present it permits cities to charge an amount 
equal to the actual cost of instruction, with the understanding 
that $20.00 will be paid by the state and the remainder by the 
district in which the pupil resides. The act does not, however, 
apply to union districts or academies, which are in greater need 
of the additional sum than cities. 25 

In 1906 the legislature passed an act amending the laws of 
1894 in reference to the training of teachers. The sum of 
$100,000 was appropriated to be apportioned to such academies, 
union schools, and cities as the state educational authorities 
should designate to carry on the work of training teachers. It 
was provided that no more than 115 such cities or other academic 
departments should be selected and that each such city or depart- 
ment conducting such a class of not less than ten pupils should 
receive $500.00. The remainder of the fund was to be appor- 
tioned among such training classes ratably on the basis of the 
number of teachers receiving training in excess of the ten form- 
ing the basis for the first apportionment. 28 

Andrew S. Draper, Commissioner of Education for the State 
of New York, says in regard to the development of the litera- 
ture fund : " What is known as the literature fund was estab- 



22 Session Laws of New York, 1906, Chapter 698. 

23 The Consolidated School Laws of New York, Title II., Article 1, 
Sections 6 and 7. 

24 Session Laws of New York, 1906, Chapter 6S3. 

28 Report of Educational Department, 1908, p. 248. 
28 Session Laws of New York, 1906, Chapter 556. 



7 6 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 

lished in aid of secondary education in 1790. The stream made 
a fine start, and it has gathered volume in its progress. The 
state appropriation for the purpose is now $350,000 annually. 
The state appropriations from 1793 to 1904 were $4,523,983. 
The total expenditures of the system up to 1904 have been 
$104,583,413. The system has of course seen its most marvelous 
growth in the last twenty-five years. In 1880 the extent of 
the state aid was $43,000 and the total expenditures for the 
secondary schools were $1,013,780. In 1890 the state aid was 
$107,559 and the total cost of the system was $2,341,956. In 
1904 the state aid was $312,368 and the total expenditures were 
$8,111,369. In 1893 there were 47,799 in our secondary schools, 
and in 1905 there were 95,096. The secondary school system is 
evenly distributed over the state for it has schools in every 
county." 27 

The number of high schools has increased in the state from 
314 in 1894 to 675 in 1907, and the number of academies has 
increased during the same period from 123 to 157. The total 
enrollment in these schools in 1907 was 94,386. Of this number 
87,654 were enrolled in high schools. During this same year 
the high schools were classified as follows: There were 447 
high schools, 103 senior schools, 40 middle schools and 85 junior 
schools. There were of the academies 112 high schools, 6 senior 
schools, 12 middle schools, and 24 junior schools with 3 
special schools. 28 

Concerning the apportionment of funds to secondary schools 
for the academic year 1906-7 the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion says : 

" The amounts apportioned from the academic and library 
fund to the schools of the state for the fiscal year ending Septem- 
ber 30, 1907, were as follows : 
For quota of $100.00 to each nonsectarian secon- 
dary school $65,600 00 

For library books, apparatus and pictures 142,569 35 

For tuition of nonresident students 88,608 46 

For attendance of academic students 255,411 96 

Total. $552,189 77 

27 Report of Educational Department, New York, 1905, p. 14. 

28 Report of Educational Department, New York, 1908, pp. 251-2. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 77 

" The sum indicated above ($88,608.46) is the amount actu- 
ally paid for the tuition of nonresident academic students during 
the fiscal year 1906-7. The amount earned within the school 
year 1906-7 was approximately $155,644.46. The item relating 
to library books, apparatus and pictures ($142,569.85) includes 
payments made to both academic and elementary schools. On 
the basis of a fair estimate the sums apportioned to academic 
departments would be approximately $28,800 for books, $23,100 
for apparatus, and $3,571.43 for pictures." 29 

Leaving out the item of tuition which would prove a loss to 
any school receiving it, at $20.00 per pupil, and estimating upon 
the remaining figures, it would appear that each of the above 
schools received upon the account of the $100.00 quota and the 
apparatus distribution an average of $184.50, and upon the 
aggregate attendance item about $3.40 per pupil enrolled. This 
would give a school with an enrollment of 40 pupils in the 
neighborhood of $320.50 subsidy. 

That the free tuition law works an injustice upon the schools 
receiving such tuition has been frequently pointed out by the 
Commissioner of Education. The average annual per capita 
cost of secondary education in high schools for 1907 was $80.87, 
and in academies it was $179.97, while the maximum amount 
that these schools were permitted to collect was $20.00 per capita. 
The act of 1907 which permits cities to charge an amount equal 
to the actual cost of such education will probably work to drive 
many more of the tuition pupils into the smaller and poorer 
high schools. 

The following table taken from the commissioner's report of 
1907 shows clearly the distribution of the tuition pupils. 

29 Report of Department of Education, 1908, p. 253. 



78 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 
Apportionments for Free Tuition Pupils 30 

Boys. Girls. Amount paid. 

To cities 455 602 $19,187 58 

To villages of at least 5,000 in- 
habitants 382 532 15,979 97 

To villages of at least 2,000 in- 
habitants 714 1,195 31,825 76 

To villages of less than 2,000 in- 
habitants 2,054 3,094 88,651 15 

Totals 3,605 5,332 $155,64446 

In view of the fact that the Commissioner of Education points 
out that the per capita cost of instructing academic students is 
from three to five dollars greater in villages than in cities, 31 and 
in view of the further fact that the average for all high schools 
in the state is more than $80.00 per capita for such instruction, 
it would appear that the high schools in rural communities are 
bearing an undue share of the burden of secondary education in 
the state. 

From the foregoing figures it appears that more than 10 per 
cent, of the high school pupils in the state are tuition pupils. 

Rhode Island: 32 Rhode Island passsed a law in aid of town 
high schools in 1898. In effect this law provides that any town 
maintaining a high school and having a course of study approved 
by the state board of education, shall be entitled to receive annu- 
ally from the state $20.00 for each of the first 25 pupils in 
average attendance in said school, and ten dollars for each of 
the second 25 pupils in average attendance in said school. It 
is further provided that any town not maintaining a high school, 
which shall make provision for the free attendance of its children 
at some high school or academy approved by the state board of 
education, shall receive aid from the state for each pupil in such 
attendance on the same basis and to the same extent as if it 
maintained a high school. 33 



30 Report of Department of Education, 1908, p. 249. 

31 Report of the Department of Education, 1908, p. 248. 

32 The latest State Reports and laws available were those of 1906. 

33 School Laws of Rhode Island, 1903, Chapter 544, Section 3. 



States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 79 

In 1900 permission was granted to the school committee of 
any town to pay for the transportation of the pupils to and 
from such schools at public expense. 34 

The legislature of 1903 abolished all districts and vested the 
administration of all schools in the town. 35 This act while not 
directly aimed at an increase of rural high schools will neces- 
sarily stimulate their organization in the state. 

It is also possible under the laws of the state for two or more 
towns to form a union district for the purpose of organizing a 
high school. 

In some respects the above laws are superior to those of most 
other states in that they place a premium upon increased attend- 
ance. They, however, do not necessarily encourage the estab- 
lishment of local high schools because they place no special 
premium upon local effort in this direction, giving the same state 
aid to towns whether they provide school facilities at home or 
abroad. In a state as thickly settled as Rhode Island a town 
having fifty pupils in attendance upon outside high schools should 
have a high school of its own. 

The laws of the state make provision for thorough town 
supervision which aids much in increasing the efficiency of the 
elementary schools and thus tends to increase the attendance 
upon high schools. 

Washington: 36 The legislature of the state of Washington 
passed a law, 1890, the object of which was undoubtedly to 
encourage the organization and support of rural high schools. 
This law authorized the establishment of union high schools, 
and provided that such high schools should receive state aid 
upon the same basis of apportionment as other public schools of 
the state, that is to say that each such school should receive an 
apportionment of state moneys upon the basis of at least 2,000 
days attendance no matter what the actual attendance might be. 
In addition to this it provided that a bonus of $100 should be 
paid each year to every union high school for each high school 
grade maintained. 

34 School Laws of Rhode Island, 1903, Chapter 743, Section 8. 
36 School Laws of Rhode Island, 1903, Chapter 1101, Section 1. 
38 The latest Laws consulted were those of 1907. The latest State 
Reports consulted were those of 1906. 



80 States that Use Other than the Direct Subsidy Plan 

The State Superintendent in his report for 1902 pointed out 
that this law while serving in some instances the purpose for 
which it was intended in many other cases worked an injustice, 
since it failed to place a minimum limit upon the length of a 
school year and failed to define the number of pupils necessary 
to constitute a grade. 37 This matter was, however, remedied 
by the legislature of 1903 which limited the grade to a minimum 
of four pupils with an average daily attendance of at least three 
pupils for six months. 38 

In June, 1906 there were 33 union high schools in the state 
with an enrollment of 637 pupils. Thus it appears that the 
average enrollment in these schools was less than twenty pupils. 
Five of the above schools gave four year courses, eight gave 
three year courses, fourteen gave two year courses, and six gave 
one year courses. Of these schools four received aid as four 
year schools, two received aid as three year schools, eleven 
received aid as two year schools, and ten received aid as one 
year schools. The least number of pupils enrolled by any one 
of these schools was 4, and the largest number enrolled by any 
one was 87. The amount of state subsidy received by them 
ranged from $272 to $i,334. 39 

87 Report of State Superintendent, 1902, p. 188. 
38 Report of State Superintendent, 1904, p. 189. 
•• Report of State Superintendent, 1906, p. 68. 



CHAPTER VIII 

STATES THAT DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY PAY THE TUITION 
OF CERTAIN HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, CONNECTICUT, DELAWARE, AND VERMONT 

New Hampshire: 1 The high schools of New Hampshire are 
considered an integral part of the public school system, and since 
the state funds are distributed upon the school attendance basis, 
the districts benefit by increasing this attendance. The state 
funds consist of a literary fund and an equalization fund. The 
equalization fund consists of an annual appropriation of $25,000. 
Twenty-five per cent, of this amount or $6,250 plus an addi- 
tional $10,000 is devoted to the aid of supervision in the poorer 
towns. The remainder of the equalization fund, $18,750, is 
apportioned only to such towns in the state as have an equalized 
valuation of less than $3,000 for each child of the average 
attendance in the public schools, and to such other towns as the 
governor and council may upon the recommendation of the state 
superintendent add to the list. To these several towns this fund 
is apportioned, " * * * in direct proportion to said average 
attendance, and in inverse proportion to the equalized valuation 
per child * * *." 2 In effect the act is made to apply to all 
towns as defined above, and to many other towns whose equaliza- 
tion valuation per child of the average attendance does not 
reach $5,000. 

The literary fund for 1905-6 amounted to $36,931 which was 
apportioned to towns and other school districts in proportion to 
the number of pupils in attendance upon the public schools in 
such towns and districts for a period of not less than two weeks. 3 

In 1905-6 the per capita amount received by the towns and 
districts from the literary fund was 57 cents, and the amount 
received by the various towns and districts from the equalization 
fund varied from $1.10 to $4.88 per capita. 4 Thus it will appear 

1 The latest School Laws available were those of 1907. The latest 
State Report was that of 1906. 

2 School Laws of New Hampshire, 1907, Chapter 1. 

3 School Laws of New Hampshire, 1907, Chapter 1. 

4 Compiled from Report of State Superintendent, 1905-6. 



82 States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 

that the amount of the state aid, received by the poorer districts 
for general school purposes, is so small that it could have little 
or no influence upon the establishment of rural high schools. 

In 1901 the legislature of New Hampshire passed an act com- 
pelling all towns not supporting a high school or a school of 
corresponding grade to pay the tuition of all resident children 
in attendance upon any approved high school or academy in the 
state : provided that the amount of such tuition should not be in 
excess of the average cost for each pupil in attendance in 
said school. 5 

This same act provides for the reimbursement of the poorer 
towns in amounts varying from ten to one hundred per cent, of 
the amounts actually expended for such tuition. " Towns whose 
rate of taxation for school purposes in any one year is $3.50 or 
more on $1,000, and whose average rate of taxation for all pur- 
poses for five years next preceding is $16.50 or more on $1,000, 
shall receive a share of said appropriation as follows ; * * *." 
The act goes on to provide that towns with a general tax rate of 
from $16.50 to $17.49 upon each $1,000 of valuation shall receive 
one-tenth of the amount expended for tuition, and an added tenth 
for each additional dollar paid upon the thousand. 6 The sum of 
$8,000 has been appropriated annually to meet the requirements 
of this act. 7 

It is perhaps needless to say that the theory underlying this 
scheme of tuition reimbursement is superior to any other in 
existence in the country. A further discussion of this matter 
will be taken up in a later chapter. 

Connecticut: 8 Beginning with the academic year 1897-8 
Connecticut permitted any town not supporting a high school to 
pay the whole or any part of the tuition fee of any child who 
resides with his parents or guardian in said town, provided that 
the high school shall have been previously approved by the state 
board of education. The same general assembly, 1897, passed 
an act providing for the reimbursement of towns with a tax 
list not to exceed $900,000 to the extent of two-thirds of the 

6 School Laws of New Hampshire, 1907. 
e School Laws of New Hampshire, 1907. 

7 Session Laws of New Hampshire, 1905, Chapter 89. 

8 The latest Laws available were those of 1905. The latest State Report 
available was that of 1905. 



States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 83 

amount actually expended by said town for tuition of pupils in 
attendance in outside high schools; provided that not more than 
thirty dollars should be paid for each scholar in attendance 
in any outside high school. 9 The following general assembly 
removed the clause limiting state aid to towns with a list of 
$900,000 or less. 10 

In 1901 the general assembly changed the wording of the law 
of 1897 so that it provided that the state should reimburse towns 
to the extent of the tuition paid ; provided that not more than 
thirty dollars should be paid by the state for each scholar in 
attendance from any town. 11 

Connecticut also passed a law, 1903, providing for the free 
transportation of pupils in attendance upon a neighboring high 
school. This law permits any town to pay the transportation of 
its pupils to and from outside high schools, and also provides for 
the reimbursement of said town to the extent of one-half of the 
amount so expended, provided that not more than twenty dollars 
shall be paid by the state for the transportation of any one 
pupil in any given year. 12 

There is also a provision in Connecticut for the aiding of high 
school libraries. The act provides that any district or town 
supporting a high school may receive from the state ten dollars 
for the establishment of a library, provided said district or town 
raises for the purpose the same amount. In addition to this, 
five dollars will be given by the state for the yearly support 
of said library, provided the district or town raises a similar 
amount. If the number of scholars in actual attendance in any 
school exceeds one hundred an additional five dollars will be 
annually paid for each hundred or fraction of a hundred in 
attendance in excess of the first hundred. 13 

The laws of the state also provide for the payment of the 
tuition of pupils, attending academies located in towns not having 
high schools of their own, upon the same basis as that provided 
for the attendance of pupils in high schools outside of 
such towns. 14 



9 School Law of Connecticut, 1897, Chapter V. 

10 School Law of Connecticut, 1899, Chapter V. 

11 School Law of Connecticut, 1904, Chapter V., Section 68. 

12 School Law of Connecticut, 1904, Chapter V., Sections 71 and 72. 

13 School Law of Connecticut, 1903, Chapter XV., Section 200. 
** School Law of Connecticut, 1903, Chapter V., Section 70. 



84 States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 

The numbers attending nonlocal high schools and the amounts 
paid for tuition for the seven years ending 1903-4 have been 
as follows : 15 





Towns pay- 


Tuition 


Approved 


Amount paid 


Year. 


ing tuition. 


scholars. 


high schools. 


by state. 


1897-8 


3 2 


I36 


27 


$2,315 96 


1898-9 


40 


214 


24 


3'584 09 


1899-O 


55 


408 


26 


7,059 85 


1 900- 1 


61 


489 


31 


8,591 72 


IOX)I-2 


64 


580 


37 


12,563 47 


1902-3 


69 


649 


42 


15,312 85 


I9O3-4 


76 


813 


52 


19,403 04 



There are in all (1903-4) 78 high schools in the state. Of 
this number 20 are district high schools, and the remainder, 58 
are township high schools. Sixteen of the latter are organized 
under the district system and 42 are organized under the con- 
solidated system. Forty-nine of the 78 are four year, 21 are 
three year, 5 are two year, and 2 are one year high schools. 16 

There are 165 towns in the state. In 1903-4 there were 58 
towns maintaining high schools, and 76 towns had tuition pupils 
in neighboring high schools, leaving 31 towns that made no pro- 
vision at all for high school pupils. During this same year the 
state reimbursed these 76 towns in the amount of $19,403.04 and 
$8,341.27 for the tuition and transportation of pupils. Eight 
per cent, of the entire high schools enrollment of the state was 
made up of nonresident pupils. 17 Fifteen per cent, of the total 
expense of public school education in Connecticut is borne by 
the state. 

The actual status of secondary educational opportunities in 
this state may be best shown by quoting from page 13 of the 
Report of the Board of Education for 1905 : 

" If we look at purely rural areas in Connecticut generally 
we find no high schools at all. Even if we include village com- 
munities with a population not exceeding 2,000 we shall, with 
few exceptions, find the same state of affairs. To find the unit 
of population of a successful high school we must go higher than 

15 Report of State Board of Education, 1905, p. 12*. 

16 Report of Connecticut Board of Education, 1905, p. 160.* 

17 Report of Connecticut Board of Education, 1905, p. 12.* 



States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 85 

a population of 2,000. It is difficult to determine how much 
higher or where the high school line should be drawn." 

Delaware : 18 In this state there is no legal recognition of high 
schools as such. All such schools where they exist are a part 
of what is legally known as graded schools. Being a part of the 
public school system these schools benefit equally in the distribu- 
tion of the state school fund which is all apportioned upon the 
teacher basis. The state fund consists of the income from the 
permanent school fund (between 30 and 40 thousand dollars), 
and such appropriations as are made by the legislature, which 
may not be less than $132,000.00 annually. The above fund is 
apportioned among the different districts or schools according to 
the number of teachers employed. 19 

With an income of $34,296.50 from the permanent fund for 
1900 and the above minimum legislative appropriation the amount 
received by the different schools per teacher employed would 
have been for 1904-5 a little more than $185.00. 

It thus appears that a school doing high school work and 
employing one or more teachers in this department receives 
a small direct subsidy for each such teacher. Neighboring school 
districts are permitted to create a joint district for the purposes 
of securing better school facilities including graded schools. 20 

In 1899 the general assembly of Delaware passed an act which 
provided for the division of the state into districts containing 
one or more graded schools which were to be free to qualified 
pupils of said districts. The tuitions of all such pupils are to 
be paid direct to the schools concerned by the State Treasurer. 
The amount of the aforesaid tuition is $15.00 per year for each 
pupil. This act does not apply to the city of Wilmington. 21 

The last state report available was that of 1900, so it was 
impossible to get at the workings of this act in the last 
few years. 

The United States Commissioner of Education reports a total 
of 15 high schools for the year 1906. One of these is a union 
high school. 22 

18 The latest School Law consulted was that of 1907. 

19 School Laws, Delaware, 1907, p. 49. 

20 School Laws, Delaware, 1907, p. 24, 

21 School Laws, Delaware, 1907, pp. 44-46. 

22 School Laws, Delaware, 1907, Volume 2, p. 752. 



86 States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 

Vermont:- 3 As early as 1876 a law was passed in Vermont 
giving districts the privilege to contract with academies for the 
education of all or any part of their pupils. Naturally certain 
of these pupils sooner or later were pursuing secondary subjects 
in these schools. 24 

The same year an act was passed empowering towns to estab- 
lish and maintain central high schools. It seems that at a very 
early period some thirty villages in the state became incorporated 
by special acts in order that they might establish and maintain 
high schools as a part of their graded school systems. These 
schools are in existence at the present time. 25 

In 1894 a law was passed providing that towns with a popu- 
lation of 2,500 must establish and support a high school or pro- 
vide for the education of their children of high school age and 
preparation in academies, or in the schools of a graded district or 
districts located therein. 26 

The State Superintendent in his report for 1904 sums up the 
legal status of secondary education at the present time as 
follows : 

" In 1900 existing laws provided for free advanced, or secon- 
dary educational opportunities as follows : ( 1 ) Towns and cities 
having 2,500 inhabitants or more, were required to provide free 
secondary instruction: (2) Towns having within their limits an 
academy, seminary or high school of incorporated district, were 
required to provide free secondary instruction: (3) Any town, 
not within the foregoing, by action of its directors, might pro- 
vide such instruction free in other towns : (4) Any town, by a 
vote, might support a high school or otherwise provide free 
advanced instruction. In effect all the large towns and many 
of the small ones either maintained high schools or provided 
equivalent schooling in other institutions. 27 

" In 1902 two-thirds of our youth resided in towns that pro- 
vided free secondary schooling * * *. At this time a very 
important law was enacted, whose aim was to require every town 

23 The latest State School Report available was that of 1906. The 
latest School Law available was that of 1907. 

24 Vermont School Report, 1904, p. 74. 
36 Vermont School Report, 1904, p. 75. 

28 School Laws of Vermont, 1895, Chapter 36. 
27 Vermont School Report, 1904, pp. 75-6. 



States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 87 

to provide for the instruction of advanced pupils in high school 
branches of study in the high schools of the town, or in the high 
schools of the incorporated districts, or in an academy in the 
town, or in the academies and high schools of other towns. 
Vermont in this act took the final step, whereby free secondary 
education is provided for every youth in the state who is 
fitted for it, * * *." 27 

A new act was passed in 1907 referring to high schools and 
secondary pupils as follows: 

It is required that each and every town shall maintain a high 
school or provide for the payment of the tuition of all of its 
pupils of advanced grade in a standard district high school or 
academy within the town, or in the standard high schools or 
academies in an adjoining town within or without the state. It 
is provided, however, that the town shall not be compelled to 
pay more than twenty-four dollars per year for any one pupil. 28 

Certain of the towns paying the tuition of pupils may be reim- 
bursed as follows : There shall be paid, " * * * according 
to and based on tuitions not exceeding twenty-four dollars per 
pupil per school year : to towns having raised and expended 
for current school expenses during the preceding school year, 
excluding interest on United States deposit fund, the state school 
tax and expenditures for new buildings, forty per cent, or more 
of their grand lists, a sum equal to one-fourth of the amount 
expended for tuitions; to towns having raised and expended 
fifty per cent, or more of their grand lists, a sum equal to one- 
half the amount so expended; to towns having raised and ex- 
pended sixty per cent, or more, a sum equal to three-fourths 
of the amount so expended; and to towns having raised and 
expended seventy per cent, or more, a sum equal to the amount 
so expended." 29 

In 1906 there were registered in the high schools of the state 
5,218 pupils. Of this number 435 had their tuition paid by 
parents or guardians and 1,297 had their tuition paid by their 
towns. During the same year there were 1,551 secondary stu- 
dents attending academies, of which number 983 had their 



27 Vermont School Report, 1904, pp. 75-6. 

28 School Laws of Vermont, 1907, Section 1018. 
18 School Laws of Vermont, 1907, Section 1023. 



88 States that Directly or Indirectly Pay Tuition 

tuition paid by their respective towns. 30 If we assume that 
the academy students were all tuition pupils, it will appear 
that 43.5 per cent, of the pupils enrolled in the two types of 
schools are tuition pupils. If, however, we eliminate the figures 
for the academies which serve largely as secondary schools for 
many towns we still have one-third of the high school pupils 
attending high schools outside of their own districts. 
"Vermont School Report, 1906, pp. 145 and 488. 



CHAPTER IX 

STATES THAT LEGALIZE THE LOCAL PAYMENT OF HIGH 
SCHOOL TUITION 

INDIANA, OHIO, KANSAS, NEBRASKA, MICHIGAN, IDAHO, OREGON, 
AND UTAH 

Indiana -, 1 The beginning of the history of the township high 
schools in Indiana dates back to the adoption of the constitution 
of 1849, an d the legislative enactments of 1852. Under these 
laws the township became the unit of organization for local 
government, taxation, and the establishment and support of pub- 
lic schools. The efficiency of these early laws was doubtless due 
in large part to the fact that they were so framed as to encourage 
the centralization into combined districts, towns, districts and 
towns, and combined towns. These same laws gave rise later 
to the township graded schools, and finally to the township 
high schools. 2 

While these laws implied the provision of secondary educa- 
tional advantages, no progress whatever was made in this direc- 
tion until after the civil war. The high school was merely recog- 
nized as a part of the public school system and has consequently 
been a gradual evolution out of the elementary school. 

It is probable that the first township high school to be estab- 
lished in the state was in or near the town of Nineva in 1872. 3 

Such high schools as existed in the state previous to 1891 
were organized under the general law permitting the establish- 
ment of graded schools. Before this time the law made no 
mention of high schools as such. 4 The legislature, however, at 
this time passed several acts relating to high schools. Under 
the general duties of trustees the law provides that : " Such 
school trustees may also establish and maintain in their respective 
corporations, as near the centre of the township as seems wise, 
at least one separate graded high school, to which shall be ad- 

1 The latest School Laws available were those of 1907, The latest 
State Reports available were those of 1905-6. 

2 Cotton, S. S. R., 1904, pp. 681-687. Sch. Rev., XII., p. 266. 

3 Report of State Superintendent, 1898. 

4 School Laws of Indiana, 1883 and 1889, Section 444. 



0o States that Legalize the Local Payment 

mittecl all pupils who are sufficiently advanced: Provided, 
that the school trustees of two or more corporations may establish 
and maintain joint graded high school (s) in lieu of separate 
graded high schools, * * * : Provided further, that any 
trustee instead of building a separate graded high school 
for his township shall transfer the pupils of his township 
competent to enter a graded high school to another school 
corporation : Provided further, that, all payment of tuition, 
provided for under this act, heretofore made by school trus- 
tees for such high school privileges are hereby legalized : 
Provided further, that no such graded high school shall be built 
unless there are at the time such house is built, at least twenty- 
five common school graduates of school age residing in the town- 
ship. 5 The act makes further definite provision for the payment 
of the tuition of pupils in attendance in other school cor- 
porations. 6 

The free transportation of pupils is also largely practiced in 
Indiana. The legal status for such practice is evidently found 
in Section 128 of the school law, which provides for the aban- 
donment of school districts and their consolidation into joint 
districts. The act does not specifically give such power but it 
has been interpreted to mean this. 7 

The large extent to which the free transportation of pupils is 
practiced in Indiana is shown by the fact that previous to 1906 
there had been 830 schools abandoned, and during the academic 
year ending 1905-6 there were transported at public expense 
9,425 pupils or an average of between eleven and twelve to 
the district. 8 

The laws of Indiana also provide for the organization and 
support of county high schools in such counties as may receive 
as a gift certain high school buildings and equipment as defined 
by the act. The tax levy for such schools must not, however, 
exceed fifteen cents upon each $100.00 of valuation. Tuition in 
these schools must be free to all properly qualified residents 
of the county. 9 

' School Laws of Indiana, 1904, Section 117. 

6 School Laws of Indiana, 1904, Sections 157 and 158. 

7 Report of State Superintendent, Indiana, 1904, p. 281. 

8 Report of State Superintendent, Indiana, 1905-6, p. 619. 
• School Laws of Indiana, 1904, Sections 289 and 291. 



States that Legalise the Local Payment 91 

In Indiana as in Illinois the high school being a part of the 
common school system the educational funds may be applied to 
these schools in the same manner and to the same extent as to the 
•elementary schools. The State Superintendent in his report for 
1905-6 gives $3.04 per capita as the total state school revenue, 
and $10.31 per capita as the total local revenue. 10 In other words 
the state approximately bears 22.7 per cent, of the financial 
burden attached to public education in the state. Both the state 
and county distribute these funds upon the school census basis. 

The State Superintendent in his report for 1903-4, page 686, 
gives the following data : 

Number of townships in Indiana 1,016 

Number of high schools, all grades 763 

Number of commissioned high schools 205 

Number of township high schools 558 

Number of commissioned township high schools .... 20 

High school enrollment 38,242 

Township high school enrollment !3.435 

High school graduates 4*583 

Township high school graduates I>4I4 

Number of high school teachers 1 ,829 

Number of township high school teachers 848 

Salaries of Teachers Employed 

a. Commissioned high school teachers (170 days 

average school year) per year $806 50 

D. Township high school teachers (140 days aver- 
age school year) per year 500 04 

Per Capita Cost of Maintenance 

a. In commissioned high schools $33 00 

b. In township high schools 25 00 

Ohio : X1 Ohio has the township system of high school 
organization with entire local support. The original provision 



10 Report of State Superintendent of Indiana, 1905-6, pp. 806-7. 

11 The latest State Report available was that of 1906. The latest 
"School Laws available were those of 1907. 



9 2 



States that Legalize the Local Payment 



for such establishment of township high schools is to be found 
in the acts of 1853. 12 

There is ample evidence that several townships took advantage 
of the opportunities offered under this law as early as 1870, 
since the report of the commissioner of education for that year 
gives the number of teachers employed in township high schools 
as eighteen. 13 The report of 1880 gives the total enrollment of 
pupils in township high schools as i,254. 14 The report of 1890 
gives the number of townships having taken advantage of the 
law as something less than one hundred. 15 The number of 
pupils enrolled in these schools was for the same year 2,920. 
This enrollment had increased to 6,196 by the year 1900, 16 and 
had further increased to 6,854 by the year 1906. 17 The number 
of township high schools had also increased to 285 by the end 
of the academic year 1903-4. 17 

No further legislation of importance referring to township 
high schools occurred until 1892, when an act was passed known 
as the Boxwell Law. 18 This act provided for the uniform 
examination of pupils of the public schools in the grammar 
school subjects, and enabled any successful candidate to enter 
any high school in the county or in any adjoining county, and 
further provided, that the tuitions of such pupils might be paid 
by the various boards of education of the townships to which 
the pupils belonged. It seems that the part of the above act 
which referred to the payment of tuition by the various town- 
ships was interpreted by many boards of education as being 
compulsory, 19 and in the opinion of the attorney general, ren- 
dered six years later, it was compulsory. 20 

The above decision did not however settle the matter and 
the legislature of 1902 enacted a new law to cover the case. This 
act definitely provides for the payment of the tuition of such 
pupils as have passed the examinations provided by the county 

12 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1900, p. 1 1. 

13 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1870, p. 13. 

14 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1880, p. 10 1. 

15 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1890, p. 5. 

16 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1900, p. 77. 

17 Report of Commissioner of Education of Ohio, 1906, p. 51. 

18 H. B. No. 413, Acts of 1892, State of Ohio. 

19 Report of Commission of Education, 1894, p. 7. 

20 Report of Commission of Education, 1899, p. 9. 



States that Legalise the Local Payment 



93 



board and as reside in such townships, special or subdistricts, 
as maintain no high schools of their own. In order that the 
various townships, districts, and subdistricts may meet this 
demand without using the funds provided for the elemen- 
tary schools, it is provided that the Boards of Education 
may levy a special tax of an amount not to exceed 
two mills upon the dollar. 21 Under this act 5,293 pupils had 
their tuition paid by local districts and townships in nonlocal 
high schools during the academic year 1905-6. 22 

The legislature of 1898 passed an act providing for the free 
transportation of pupils at public expense. This matter is en- 
tirely optional with the local boards of education. It is, how- 
ever, quite largely practiced in the state at the present time. 

The high school law of 1902 defines high schools and pro- 
vides for their division into three classes somewhat as follows : 
A first grade high school shall offer a course of four years of 
not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which at least sixteen 
courses shall be required for graduation. A second grade high 
school shall offer a course covering not less than three years of 
not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which at least twelve 
courses shall be required for graduation. A third grade high 
school shall offer a course covering at least two years of not 
less than twenty-eight weeks, in which at least eight courses 
shall be required for graduation. 23 

During the four year period ending 1906 the number of high 
schools in the state increased regularly from 781 to 930, the 
number of first class schools increased less regularly from 179 to 
291, the number of second class schools increased irregularly 
from 268 to 273 and the number of third class schools increased 
less irregularly from 334 to 366. 24 If the promotion of these schools 
from class to class was regular, the number of schools promoted 
to the third class was 149, the number promoted from third to 
second class was 117 and the number promoted from second to 
first class was 112. These figures show that the interest of the 
people of the rural districts of the state is still more taken 

21 School Laws of Ohio, 1906, Chapter 9, Section 4029-3. 

22 Report of Commissioner of Education, 1906, p. 54. 

23 School Laws of Ohio, 1906, Sections 4007-2 and 4007-4. 

24 Reports of Commissioner, Ohio, 1903, p. 61, 1904, p. 13, 1905, p. 
19, 1906, p. afi 



94 



States that Legalise the Local Payment 



up with the extension of secondary educational facilities than 
with their increased efficiency as measured by the introduction of 
the higher grades. 

The maximum amount of local tax that may be levied in any 
township in Ohio for school purposes proper may not exceed 
ten mills upon the dollar. This amount may be exceeded only 
for the purpose of transporting pupils. 25 

The number of pupils presenting themselves for examination 
in the grammar school subjects increased from 2,131 in 1892 to 
21,051 in 1906. The number passing such examinations increased 
from 1,341 in 1892 to 6,651 in 1906. 

Of the total amount expended in the state for public education 
less than eleven per cent, is derived from state sources and this 
is distributed to the counties, and by them to the various dis- 
tricts and townships upon the school census basis. 

There is no high school supervision in Ohio at least none of any 
great adequacy. 

Kansas: 26 In 1886 the state of Kansas provided that each 
county having a population of 6,000 inhabitants or more might 
establish a county high school. 27 This law provides that the 
counties establishing such high schools may, for the purposes 
of building, paying teacher's salaries, and other current expenses, 
tax themselves to the extent of six mills upon the dollar. When 
the tax is levied for the payment of teachers' salaries and con- 
tingent expenses only, it must not exceed three mills upon the 
dollar. 28 

The legislature of 1905 provided that there should be three 
courses of study in the above schools, each requiring four years 
of work for completion. 29 These courses were to be. a general 
course, a normal course, and a collegiate course. The general 
course is provided for those who do not expect to carry their 
education any further. The normal course is provided for those 
who expect to teach, the collegiate course is provided for those 
who are preparing for the university. The above teachers' course 

26 School Laws of Ohio, 1906, Section 4009-2. 

26 The latest State Report available was that of 1906. The latest 
School Laws available were those of 1907. 

27 School Laws of Kansas, 1886, Chapter 147, Section 1. 

28 School Laws of Kansas, 1886, Chapter 147, Section 6. 

29 School Laws of Kansas, 1905, Chapter 389, Section 1. 






States that Legalise the Local Payment 95 

when completed entitles the graduate to a teacher's certificate 
of the second grade and entrance to the professional work at the 
state normal school. 30 

In 1889 the legislature passed a law permitting districts located 
in counties that did not maintain a county high school to pay 
the tuition of all of their properly qualified pupils in attendance 
upon neighboring high schools. 31 Counties with a population of 
less than 6,000 are permitted under the legislative act of 1903 to 
combine with the school district or districts of the county-seat 
in the establishment of a county high school as provided for 
under the above acts. 32 

The legislature of 1905 provided for the compulsory levying 
of a tax for the creation of a general high school fund in such 
counties, not having a county high school, as have an estab- 
lished high school or established high schools in one or more 
districts or in cities with a population of less than 1,600 inhabi- 
tants. The above tax must be a levy of not less than one-fourth 
of a mill and not more than three mills upon the dollar. 33 This 
fund is distributed to the various school districts, supporting 
high schools, according to the average daily attendance of resi- 
dent pupils of the county in the high schools of each during the 
preceding school year. It is further provided that tuition shall be 
free in all such high schools to all properly qualified pupils re- 
siding in the county. 34 

There are in the state of Kansas a total of 105 counties. Up 
to June, 1906 but twenty-two of these had county high schools 
in operation. 35 The total enrollment in these schools for the 
year 1905-6 was 3,35o, 36 and the number of graduates for the 
same year was 315. The first of these schools was established in 
1889. 37 The average levy for the support of these schools, 
during the year 1905-6 was 1.6 mills. 



30 School Laws of Kansas, 1886, Chapter 147, Section 15. 

31 School Laws of Kansas, 1889, Chapter 250, Section 1. 

32 School Laws of Kansas, 1903, Chapter 433, Section 

33 School Laws of Kansas, 1905, Chapter 397, Sections 1 and 9. 

34 School Laws of Kansas, 1905, Chapter 397, Sections 4 and 7. 

35 Report of State Superintendent, 1906, p. 27. 

36 Report of State Superintendent, 1906, p. 109. 

37 Report of State Superintendent, 1906, p. 191. 



96 States that Legalize the Local Payment 

Nebraska : 38 The laws of Nebraska permit any district with 
a school census of more than 150 to create a high school, and to 
provide for its support by local taxation. No distinction is made 
between the primary and high schools of the district in so far as 
their support is concerned. 39 

It is also provided that any district board may, upon being au- 
thorized by a two-thirds vote of those present at any annual or 
special meeting, contract for the free tuition of pupils either in 
the primary or high school departments of neighboring dis- 
tricts. 40 It is further provided that the board upon similar con- 
ditions may transport its pupils to said district at public expense. 

The exact date at which the law providing for the establish- 
ment of high schools was placed upon the statute books could 
not be ascertained, but it antedated the year 1877 41 which is 
sufficient to the purpose here. 

In 1895 the legislature passed an act which provided for the 
creation of what is known as free high schools. 42 These schools 
were to be free to all properly qualified pupils, provided such 
schools had the capacity to take care of them. Any district 
with a school census of more than 150 children could qualify as 
a free high school district, and establish and maintain a high 
school. These schools were permitted to collect from the various 
county boards which represented counties that had pupils in 
attendance upon them the sum of fifty cents per week for each 
pupil in attendance from said counties, and more than this 
amount if it could be shown that the actual cost of instruction 
in any such high school was greater than fifty cents. 43 

The section referring to free tuition was modified in 1899 so 
that it provided seventy-five cents per week as the legal tuition, 
and it made no provision for the collection of any amount in 
excess of this. As previously provided these obligations were 
to be paid out of the general funds of the counties having pupils 
in attendance upon these schools. The amount of tax that might 



38 The latest School Laws available were those of 1907. The latest 
State Report available was that of 1906. 
30 School Law, Nebraska, 1905, pp. 43-4. 

40 School Law, Nebraska, 1905, p. 41. 

41 School Law, Nebraska, 1877, Section 70. 

42 School Law, Nebraska, 1895, pp. 41-2. 

43 School Law, Nebraska, 1895, pp. 41-2. 



States that Legalize the Local Payment 97 

be levied in any county upon this account was limited to one 
mill upon the dollar. 4 * 

In 1 90 1 the act was again changed so that it provided that 
only the actual cost of the education of the pupil could be col- 
lected, and in case such cost exceeded seventy-five cents, as 
specified above, the excess could be collected from the parent 
or guardian of the pupil. At the same time there was added to 
the act a new section which provided for the formation, in any 
county, of an adjunct district to consist of all of the territory not 
included in the high school district or districts of the county. 
The said district was to form a territory for the levying of a 
special tax, of not to exceed two mills upon the dollar, for the 
purpose of creating a free tuition fund to meet the expenses con- 
templated above. The creation of such an adjunct district was, 
however, optional. 45 

The same legislature provided for the creation of rural high 
schools. The act in effect merely provided for the establishment 
and maintenance of high schools in joint districts. 46 

The final decision, that these laws were all unconstitutional, 
led the legislature of 1907 to create a new act which in effect 
modified the above act so that it provided that each school dis- 
trict which did not independently or jointly support a high school 
should by taxation make provision for the education of its pupils 
of secondary grade in neighboring high schools. 47 It also pro- 
vided for the optional establishment of county high schools to be 
supported by a special county tax not to exceed five mills upon 
the dollar. Such districts or joint districts as already support 
high schools of their own are exempt from this tax. 47 

Provision was also made in 1907 for extending state aid to 
manual training departments in high schools. The annual appro- 
priation for the purpose was $25,000 to be distributed in lots of 
$700.00. The conditions upon which a high school may secure 
this grant are such, however, as will confine the workings of 
the act to the large high schools only. 48 

44 School Law, Nebraska, 1899, pp. 39-42. 

45 School Law, Nebraska, 1901, pp. 41-49. 
48 School Law, Nebraska, 1901, pp. 41-49. 

47 School Law, Nebraska, 1907, pp. 39-47. 

48 School Law, Nebraska, 1907, p. 74. 



98 States that Legalise the Local Payment 

There were at the end of the academic year 1903-4, eighty-five 
city and village school districts in the state maintaining an estab- 
lished high school course of four years, one hundred and one 
maintaining a course of three years, one hundred and seventy- 
five maintaining a course of two years, and eighty-five main- 
taining a course of one year. In only 445 districts out of 6,667 
do pupils have free tuition above the eight grade. 

During the academic year 1903-4, the tuition for nonresident 
pupils in the state amounted to $53,292.59. Most if not all of 
this vast sum was paid for the tuition of high school pupils. 

Previous to 1907 about 10 per cent, of the amount expended 
for public education in Nebraska was provided by the state, but 
the state millage was removed in 1907 so the state aid will be 
considerably decreased in the future. The distribution of all 
state school funds has, in the past, been based upon the school 
census. 

Michigan : 49 The Michigan law provides for the establish- 
ment of high schools in any graded school district by submitting 
the matter to a vote of the district at its annual meeting. Any 
school district, or two or more joint districts, containing more 
than 100 children between the ages of five and twenty years may, 
by a two-thirds vote of the qualified electors present at any 
annual meeting, organize as a graded school district. 50 

The above law in effect dates back to 1861 as the following 
quotation from the Report of the State Superintendent of Michi- 
gan for the year 1861 shows : 

"Union or Graded Schools." 

"During the year I visited a considerable number of these 
schools and examined carefully into their condition and opera- 
tions. Their increasing number and importance, and the anxiety 
felt in the villages and more populous districts to adopt the 
graded plan, demanded that an effort be made to diffuse a 
more accurate knowledge of their true character and proper 
organization. 

" The number of union or graded schools, reported by the 
township inspectors for 1861, was 103: an increase of nine dur- 

49 The latest State Report consulted was that of 1906. The latest 
School Laws consulted were those of 1908. 

50 School Laws of Michigan, 1903, Sections 1, 3, and 5. 



States that Legalise the Local Payment 99 

ing the year. By an amendment of the law for graded and 
high schools, approved March 16th, 1861, any district having 
One-Hundred children between the ages of 5 and 20 years, 
is empowered to organize, on a vote of the annual school 
meeting, as a graded school district. The number of districts 
having this requisite number of children or over, as shown by 
the reports for the last year, is 235. If the graded school plan 
possesses the advantage claimed for it, then a true policy would 
require that the schools in these 235 districts should be organized 
and taught as graded schools. In all cases, at least, in which 
the number of pupils in attendance demands the employment 
of more than one teacher, the school should be graded." The 
above authority goes on to state that the establishment of a 
graded school in any section does not necessarily imply the estab- 
lishment of a high school. This statement would imply that 
many if not most of the graded schools of the period did some 
secondary work. 

The legislature of 1901 passed an act permitting the establish- 
ment of township high schools, the same to be supported by 
local taxation. 51 Evidently there have been no schools organized 
under this act, since the State Superintendent reports none 
for 1905-6. 

That the provision for secondary education in the state is not 
adequate, is evidenced by the fact that of the 13,221 secondary 
pupils enrolled in the village graded schools of the state for the 
academic year 1904-5, 4,139 are registered from outside districts 
and pay tuition. 52 In other words more than 23.8 per cent, of the 
secondary pupils in attendance upon these schools were from 
outside districts. 

A tuition law was passed in 1908, which provides that when 
nonresident pupils attend neighboring high schools they shall 
pay such tuition as may be fixed upon by the officers of such 
schools. In case their parents or guardians are tax payers in 
the high school districts wherein the high schools which they 
are attending are located, they shall only be required to pay 
the excess of the tuition fees over the amount of said tax. 58 
Legal provision is also made for any district to levy a tax for the 

61 Legislative Act 144, i9 OT - 

62 Report of State Superintendent of Michigan, 1905, pp. 2^2-1?. 
53 School Lav.-, 1908. Section 126. 



IO o States that Legalise the Local Payment 

purpose of creating a fund to defray the expenses of transpor- 
tation and tuition arising from the attendance of all of its quali- 
fied pupils in neighboring high schools. 54 

The establishment of normal training schools has been legal- 
ized in such communities, having no state normal schools located 
within their boundaries, as desire to establish them. The state 
pays to these schools a bonus of $500 for each teacher em- 
ployed, provided that any given school may not receive from the 
state more than $1,000 in any one year. 53 Such schools may be 
established in connection with other public schools but must con- 
duct separate classes and employ separate teachers. The State 
Superintendent reported twenty such schools as being in opera- 
tion in the state in 1905. 

In 1907 56 the legislature legalized the establishment and main- 
tenance of county agricultural, domestic economy, and manual 
training schools, at the option of any county or combination of 
counties. These schools are to be supported by local tax and 
are free to all qualified pupils of the county or counties support- 
ing them. 

Idaho: Idaho provides that a pupil may attend any high 
school located in the county in which he resides free of tuition. 
Such high school is entitled to receive from the district from 
which the pupil comes a sum of money bearing the same relation 
to the amount of money received by the district during the year 
as said pupil bears to the total school census of the district 
to which he belongs. 57 This provision is extremely faulty in 
that it compels any district supporting a high school to throw 
its doors open to any pupil in the county who may desire to 
attend it and yet it provides for but a small fraction of the 
expense of his instruction. In a more thickly populated state 
such a provision would swamp most of the high schools. 

Oregon : Previous to the year 1903 Oregon had done little 
or nothing in the way of making special provision for high 
schools in the state. Up to this time the only high school work 
attempted was the addition of a few high school subjects to the 

64 Legislative Act 190, 1903. 

55 School Laws, 1908, Section 322. 

Sfl Legislative Act 35, 1907. 

57 School Laws of Idaho, 1907, Chapter 39 (Political Code), Section 45. 



States that Legalise the Local Payment 101 

curriculum of the common school in a few of the larger and 
wealthier districts. 58 

The law passed in 1903 provides for the establishment of 
district and county high schools. A county high school may be 
established by a majority vote, of all qualified electors, cast at a 
general or special election. Any number of such high schools 
may be established in any one county. Provision is also made 
for the payment of the tuition of all pupils of high school grade 
in the county, in any district high school already established in 
said county. 59 These schools are to be located and established 
by the county courts and then turned over to the county boards 
especially provided for by the act. The schools are to be sup- 
ported entirely by county tax. 60 

District high schools are by the same act made an integral part 
of the public school system, and are to be administered by the 
district school boards and maintained out of the district school 
funds which include the state funds. 

In 1907 the legislature provided for the establishment of union 
high schools in two or more adjacent districts. At the same time 
it was provided that all district and union high schools should be 
open to the pupils of such districts as did not maintain high 
schools. The high school at which any such pupil attends is 
entitled to collect from the district wherein the pupil resides an 
amount not in excess of the amount apportioned to said district 
from the common and irreducible school funds, during the pre- 
ceding year, on account of such pupil. 61 

Only five county high schools existed in the state in 1906-7. 

Utah : The school laws of Utah provide that high school 
subjects may be taught in the common schools. The tuition of 
pupils may be paid by the districts in which they reside. It is 
provided that two or more districts may unite for the purpose 
of establishing a high school and supporting the same. None 
were in existence in 1904. 

58 Report of State Superintendent, Oregon, 1902, p. 228. 

59 School Laws of Oregon, 1903, Title II., Article 1. 

80 School Laws of Oregon, 1907, Title II., Article 2. 

81 School Law of Oregon, 1907, Title II., Article 2. 



CHAPTER X 

STATES THAT MAKE NO LEGAL PROVISION FOR THE 
TUITION OF NONRESIDENT HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS 

ILLINOIS, IOWA, NEW JERSEY, COLORADO, SOUTH DAKOTA, WYOM- 
ING, ARIZONA, MISSOURI, MONTANA, NEVADA, AND NEW MEXICO 

Illinois: 1 In Illinois the study of rural high schools resolves 
itself largely into the study of township high schools. The first 
of these to be opened in the state was located in Princeton Town- 
ship. This school was organized by the people of the township 
during the year 1866 and was opened in September, 1867 with 
a membership of 138 pupils. 

During the struggle attendant upon the organization of the 
school some doubt arose as to the legality of such an organization 
by the township. To settle all such doubts the legislature of 
1867 legalized all of the previous acts of the township and passed 
a bill incorporating the Princeton Township High School 
District. 

Edward Bangs, assistant to the State Superintendent, says, 
in the State Superintendent's Report for 1903-4 : 2 " The enter- 
prise from the start met with singular favor at the hands of the 
people of the district, and the school soon became very popular 
with the people residing outside of the district. This is shown 
by the fact that in the first nine years of its existence it received, 
from pupils residing outside of the township, tuition amounting 
to over $8,000.00, an average of nearly $1 ,000.00 per year. Being 
the only school of its kind in the state, it naturally attracted 
marked attention and its success was no doubt in part respon- 
sible for the enactment of the general township high school law 
in 1872, * * *." 

Section 35 of the school laws of Illinois, enacted 1872 says 
in part: 

" Upon petition of 500 voters of any school township, filed 
with the to wnship treasurer at least 15 days preceding a regular 

1 The latest School Laws available were those of 1907. The latest 
State Reports available were those of 1906. 

2 Report of State Superintendent, Illinois, 1903-4, p. 153. 



States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 103 

election of trustees, it shall be the duty of said treasurer to notify 
the voters of said township that an election ' For ' and 'Against ' 
a high school will be held at the next ensuing election of trus- 
tees, and the ballots to such effect shall be received and canvassed 
at such election; and if a majority of the votes at such election 
shall be found to be in favor of a high school, it shall be the 
duty of the trustees of the school district to establish, at some 
central point most convenient to the majority of the pupils of 
the township, a high school, for the education of the more ad- 
vanced pupils. For the purpose of building a school house, 
supporting the school and other necessary expenses, the township 
shall be regarded as a school district and the trustees shall have 
the power, and discharge the duties of directors for such district 
in all respects ; provided, that in like manner the voters and trus- 
tees of two or more adjoining townships, or parts of townships 
may co-operate in the establishment and maintenance of a high 
school, on such terms as they may by written agreement made 
by the boards of trustees, enter into." 

According to the decisions of the courts at various times the 
high schools of the state, district and township, are legitimately 
a part of the common school system of the state. These decisions 
entitle them to the same state support as the elementary schools. 3 

The privilege of using the state funds for the support of high 
schools in common with elementary schools has been some advan- 
tage to such schools. The method of distribution, however, 
places no premium upon the organization of these schools. The 
permanent fund of the state consists of a state fund, a county 
fund and a township fund. The county fund is not, however, a 
general county fund, but a fund held in trust for the various 
towns and districts. The following table taken from the Illinois 
School Report for 1871-2 4 will serve to show the proportion of 
the funds raised by other than strictly local sources: . 

Amount of the two mill State School Tax appor- 
tioned to counties by Auditor $900,000 00 

Amount of interest upon the School, College and 
Seminary Funds, apportioned to counties by 
Auditor 54,564 93 

Amount raised by ad valorem tax, in the dis- 
tricts, for general school purposes 5,292,942 65 

3 Report of the State Superintendent, 1902-3, p. 35. 

4 Report of the State Superintendent, 1872, p. rg. 



104 



States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 



Amount of interest received upon the Township 

Funds $528,81 1 47 

Amount received upon district bonds, issued for 

building 294,332 90 

Amount received as interest on District Funds 

loaned 82,352 37 

Amount received, borrowed money 220,698 80 

Amount received from sales of school property. 11,207 86 

Amount received for Fines and Forfeitures.... 12,946 06 

Amount received from other sources 102,273 72 

The following table is taken from the Report of 1903-4: 

Balance on hand July 1, 1903 $431,613 53 

Received from income of township funds 832,304 27 

Received from state appropriation 927,860 83 

Received from district taxes 18,349,638 42 

Received from, sale of bonds 862,152 83 

Received from other sources 8,150,228 58 

A glance at the above tables will show that the state aid to 
public education in Illinois does not amount to enough to affect 
to any large degree the secondary schools. The state legislature 
has since 1873 followed the policy of making an annual appro- 
priation of $1,000,000 to the cause of education, in lieu of the 
amount of the two mill tax. 

At the time of the passage of the law of 1872 there were 
already 88 high schools in the state. All of these were district 
high schools but one. It is highly probable that not one of these 
district schools served the purpose of a rural high school since 
they were located in towns and cities. 5 

In 1905 an act was passed which provided for a competitive 
examination to be held in each township of the state whereby the 
individual of secondary grade securing the highest standing in 
an examination upon the common school branches was to be 
awarded a free scholarship in any one of the state normal schools 
of the state. 6 There were 838 such scholarships awarded in the 
state in 1906. 

The general assembly of 1907 passed an act which provided 
that any district board of education not located in a high school 

6 Report of State Superintendent, 1871-2, p. 2. 
•Act 44, General Assembly, 1905. 



States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 105 

district, might if it should see fit, pay the tuition of any qualified 
resident secondary pupil in a neighboring high school, provided 
that the parent or guardian of such pupil was considered to be 
unable to pay such tuition. 7 

It is perhaps needless to say that such an act will have little 
direct influence upon the situation and will be of short life, since 
it rests fundamentally upon a principle of social inequality. Its 
modification, based upon historic precedent will probably result 
in an act providing for at least local free tuition in general. 

Up to 1892 but 10 township high schools had been organized in 
the state, but by 1906 the number had increased to 37. Other 
rural high schools have been organized in recent years under the 
joint district plan. 8 

The number of high schools in the state has increased from 
88 in 1872 to 438 in 1906. The attendance in these schools has 
increased from 11,004 m 1882 to 52,394 in 1906. 

Iowa : 9 Iowa has for many years permitted the establishment 
of graded schools which have served in many instances to take 
the place of high schools or partially to do so. The same act which 
legalized the above, provided for the uniting of districts for the 
purpose of establishing and maintaining higher or graded 
schools. 9a 

In 1906 the Superintendent of Public Instruction reported 686 
graded schools that gave one or more years of instruction in 
secondary subjects. The total number of secondary pupils en- 
rolled in these schools was 42,537. Of this number 7,343 were 
tuition pupils. The proportion of tuition pupils seems exception- 
ally large, since the above figures show that 17.2 per cent, of all 
pupils in high schools were registered from outside districts and 
paid tuition. 10 The figures undoubtedly show a need for the ex- 
tension of high school opportunities. In view of the fact that 
this tuition is paid by parents and guardians, a low estimate 
based upon a study to follow would place the number of pupils 
that are not in high schools but that would be there under favor- 
able conditions as at least io 3 ooo. 



7 Act, General Assembly, 1905. 

8 Report of State Supt., 1903-4, p. 154. 

9 The latest State Report available was that of 1906. The latest 
School Laws available were those of 1907. 

8a Iowa Code, Section 2776. 

10 Compiled from Report of State Superintendent, 1906. 



106 States ttiat Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 

There are at present fourteen counties in the state in which 
there are located township high schools. 11 These schools are 
evidently organized under the " Union of District Law," since 
there appears to be no special legislation particularly directed 
to such an end. 

The law has also for many years permitted the establishment 
of county high schools, but up to the present time there has been 
but one established. This school is located in Guthrie county 
and has been in operation for thirty years. 12 

In his report for 1901-3, Superintendent Barrett says : " In 
Iowa consolidation has been tried in twenty-eight counties ; 
transportation in thirty-five, and both in nineteen. Sixty-three 
districts have adopted consolidation, and eighty or more have 
transported pupils at the expense of the district. In nine counties 
districts have consolidated without providing transportation at 
the expense of the district, while pupils have been transported in 
sixteen counties where there was no consolidation." 

The state aid to public schools in Iowa amounts to little or 
nothing, there being no income to create a state fund except that 
accruing from the permanent school fund which in the aggregate 
amounts to about $215,000. 

New Jersey: 13 The school laws of New Jersey do not defi- 
nitely provide for high schools as such but they are incorporated 
into the general system of public schools. The early develop- 
ment of the system is well put by the State Superintendent in 
his report 1903, (pp. XLV-XLVI) : 

" Prior to 1867 no attempt had been made by the state to 
establish a general school system. State and town superin- 
tendents were provided, but the powers of these officers were 
limited, and the schools were practically under the control of the 
local authorities. This was entirely proper, for the reason that 
the schools were supported, except to the extent of $4,000 appro- 
priated from the income of the state school fund, by local tax and 
by tuition fees. The appropriation from the income of said 
fund has been largely increased and since 1900 has been 
$200,000 per annum." 

11 Superintendent's Report, Iowa Statistics, p. 226, year 1901-3. 
IJ Superintendent's Report, Iowa Statistics, p. 193, year 190 1-3. 
13 The latest State Report available was that of 1907 The latest 
School Laws available were those of 1905. 






States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 



107 



" The act of 1867 did not provide for a state school tax, but 
authorized townships and districts to raise local taxes for the 
support of schools. The powers granted to local boards in rural 
districts by this act have remained practically unchanged." 

" In 1871 an act was passed providing for a state school tax 
and the schools were then made free to all children in the state. 
In 1894 the township school law abolishing the small school dis- 
tricts and making the municipality the unit was enacted." 

It may be readily seen from the above that the opportunity for 
the organization and support of secondary education dates back 
to 1871. 

The legislative acts of 1888 provided that the county super- 
intendent should distribute the state school funds to the different 
districts upon the census basis, but provided further that no 
district should receive less than $275.00, and that districts with 
forty-five children or more should not receive less than $375.00. 

Previous to 1901 the state school tax levy was such an amount 
as would produce $5.00 per child of school age in the state. The 
legislature at this time changed this law so that a levy of two 
and two-thirds mills upon the dollar was provided for the pur- 
pose. In 1903 the rate was increased to two and three-fourths 
mills upon each dollar of the state ratables. It has been the 
custom of the legislature to reduce this rate by annually appro- 
priating from the state treasury a certain sum of money. In 
recent years these appropriations have exceeded $1,000,000 
per annum. 14 

The revenues resulting from this tax in 1905 were 
$2,902,292.31, the following year they were $3,172,628.14, and 
in 1907 they amounted to $4,318,077.70. The great increase 
shown in the latter item is due to the great increase in state 
ratables brought about by the assessment of the trans-state rail- 
road lines. 15 

The items making up the available state school funds for the 
academic year 1906-7 were $200,000.00 appropriated from the 
state treasury on account of the permanent school fund, 
$379,423.46 appropriated from the state treasury upon motion 
of the legislature, $1,110,419.85 appropriated by the above au- 

u School Laws of New Jersey, 1901 to 1905. 
15 New Jersey School Report, 1907, p. XXVI. 



io8 States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 

thority to reduce the state school mill tax, and $2,062,208.29 
collected as state school tax. 16 The above items make a grand 
total for the year of $3,752,051.60. 

Of this amount but the first item, $200,000.00 was appor- 
tioned to the various counties according to school attendance. 
The remainder, $3,552,051.60 was distributed to these counties 
according to their several ratings. This in effect merely reduces 
the state tax and special appropriations to a compulsory county 
tax for the support of schools. 

The apportionment of state school moneys within the counties 
is, at the present time very different. First, there is set aside 
$600.00 for each superintendent and supervising principal ; sec- 
ond, there is set aside $200.00 for each teacher employed, during 
the time school is kept open, and $80.00 for each teacher em- 
ployed during a portion of the year, (not less than four months) ; 
third, the amount remaining is apportioned among the several 
districts in the proportion which the number of days' attendance 
in each bears to the total days' attendance in the county. 

For the three years preceding 1907-8 the state raised by 
taxation, or upon account of the two and three-fourths millage r 
an amount equal to 25.5 per cent, of the total amount raised in 
the state for school purposes by taxation. 

On page 234 of his work entitled " School Funds and Their 
Apportionment," Dr. Cubberley produces a hypothetical working 
out of the New Jersey system of distribution of its state school 
fund. In the presentation it is assumed that the state funds are 
distributed to the counties upon the same basis that the county 
distributes them to the various districts. The illustration would, 
therefore, be true for a county in which the number of teachers 
employed, the number of days attendance, and the amount of 
state funds received, each, bears the same relation to the like 
items for the whole state. Dr. Cubberley's presentation follows : 

" The way this works out may be shown by an example. For 
1902-3 42% of the total state fund of $2,819,541.48 was appor- 
tioned on the total days' attendance basis, and the total days' 
attendance in all schools was 41,540,740. This makes the attend- 
ance apportionment worth a little less than three cents per pupil 
per day. Let us call it three cents. To illustrate we will assume 



New Jersey School Report, 1907, p. XXII. 



States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 



xog 



three high schools, the first, A, a village school, offering but two 
years of instruction ; the second, B, a town high school, offering 
four years of instruction in a few subjects; and the third, C, a 
city high school offering four years instruction in a number of 
courses. The result then would be: 



School 


Teachers 


Enrollment 


Average daily 
attendance 


Aggregate days' 
attendance 


A 


1% 


24 


18 


3,200 


B 


3 


59 


45 


9,000 


C 


1 6y 2 


447 


325 


65,O0O 


School 


Value of apportionment on 
Teachers Attendance 


Total amount 
received 


A 


$280 




$96 


$376 


B 


GOO 




270 


87O 


C 


3,280 




i,95o 


5,230" 



The law of New Jersey is then in operation merely a law com- 
pelling the various counties to aid in the support of both the 
higher and lower schools of their own territory by a direct 
county tax. The provision for the distribution of these funds by 
the various counties is splendid, and if the same method of dis- 
tribution were practiced by the state in the apportionment of the 
funds to the counties the system would be almost perfect, in 
so far as it relates to elementary schools. Such a system would 
not, however, be sufficient in so far as it relates to secondary 
schools, and it would still be less sufficient as a method of sup- 
port for special and higher schools or universities. 

There has been a fair development in the enrollment in high 
schools in this state in the last ten years, but the actual relation 
of enrollment in such schools to school census is still relatively 
very low as shown by the statistics to be found elsewhere in this 
study. 

Colorado : 17 The Colorado law provides that high schools may 
be established by districts, or a union of districts, or by counties, 
and that they may be supported as other public schools of the 
state, either by forming a separate high school district or where 
possible, by remaining a part of the regular school district. 18 

The schools of Colorado are supported upon state, county, 
and district funds, each raised by separate authority. The state 

17 The latest School Report available was that of 1906. The latest 
School Laws available were those of 1907. 

18 School Laws of Colorado, 1897. 



no States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 

and county funds are apportioned to the various districts upon 
the census basis. 

In 1906 the State Superintendent reported 10 county high 
schools,, 8 union high schools, and *]■$ district high schools, 
making a total of 91 fully accredited high schools, in forty-five 
counties. 19 There are 59 counties in the state, many of these 
are, however, sparsely settled. The report makes no record of 
the many district schools that do one, two, or three years of high 
school work. The practice of doing certain high school work 
in the district schools of the state is very common. In some 
instances this work is, of course, very poorly done while in others 
it is very well done, as is evidenced by the fact that some of the 
accredited high schools of the state take the pupils from these 
schools and rate their work as recommended by their adminis- 
trative authorities. Most of the ninety-one accredited high 
schools of Colorado grew out of this expansion of the com- 
mon schools. 

During the decade ending with 1906 the number of high 
school pupils in the state has nearly doubled, increasing from 
4,635 to 8,941. 

South Dakota: 20 South Dakota provides for the establish- 
ment of township and joint township high schools. The act 
making this provision was passed by the legislature of 1903. 
These schools are to be supported entirely by local tax, the maxi- 
mum of which must not exceed ten mills upon the dollar for 
any one year. 21 

No schools had been organized under this act by the end of 
the academic year 1903-4. There are state supported prepara- 
tory schools in connection with the State University, the State 
School of Mines, and the Agricultural College. 22 

The general school laws are sufficiently loose in their wording 
to permit of the carrying on of high school work in the elemen- 
tary schools of any district. There were, for the year 1903-4, 
885 pupils in the state doing high school work in the rural 
schools. 23 



18 Report of State Superintendent, 1905-6. 

20 The latest State Report available was that of 1906. The latest 
School Laws available were those of 1907. 

11 Legislative Acts of South Dakota, 1903, H. B. No. 167. 

22 Report of State Superintendent of South Dakota, 1902-4, p. 19. 

M Report of State Superintendent of South Dakota, 1902-4, p. 229. 



States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition m 

No legislation relating to high schools, had been passed up 
to and including 1907. 

Wyoming : " The high schools were authorized by law in 
1887, when we were yet a territory, and they are receiving uni- 
versal support wherever situated. The people have confidence in 
them, for we have now a high school in every county, many of 
the counties sustaining two or more. The exceptional growth 
of these schools augurs well for the success and prosperity of 
the state. The great increase in the number of these schools 
gives opportunity for nearly all of our children to secure a 
good secondary education and still remain under the influence 
of the home. They are supplied with the best of teachers, the 
latest appliances, and are well equipped to turn out a product 
ready to receive the smooth and finished touches of the State 
University. 24 

Special high school districts may be created by almost any 
combination of districts. These schools are called free high 
schools, but they are free only to the pupils in the special dis- 
tricts maintaining them. 25 The county high schools receive no 
state aid. They are free to all pupils residing in the counties 
in which they are located. 

Arizona : Arizona permits the establishment of a high school 
in any district or union of districts, having a population of at 
least one thousand. The law provides that the supervising prin- 
cipal of each high school shall exercise supervision over the work: 
of the eighth grade in all schools situated in the high school 
district. 26 

A very few high schools have been organized under the act, 
so far. The State Superintendent reported but four such schools 
in 1906. The general school laws do not define the public 
schools, so that it is possible for a district to do such high school 
work as it deems best. 

Missouri : The Missouri law permits the establishment, and 
provides for the local support, of consolidated district high 
schools. The law provides that an amount not to exceed 20 per 
cent, of the teachers' fund of the several districts may be set 

24 Report of State Superintendent of Wyoming, 1902, p. 50. 

26 Session Laws of 1907, Chapter 78, Section 2. 

28 School Laws of Arizona, 1907, Chapter X., p. 34. 



ii2 States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 

aside by such districts for the payment of high school teachers' 
salaries. 27 The above law was passed by the legislature of 1895, 
and up to 1907 but one such high school had been organized in 
the state. It is possible under section 9742, Session Acts 1901, 
to consolidate any number of districts into a union of districts 
for elementary as well as for high school purposes. It is also 
legal for districts to transport their pupils at public expense. 28 

In 1903 the legislature provided for the classification and in- 
spection of high schools. This act provided no funds for increas- 
ing the force of the superintendent, but later the legislature 
provided an increased appropriation for the office of the super- 
intendent. This resulted in the placing of high school inspectors 
in the field. 29 

In 1907 the legislature modified some of the sections of the 
laws which related to high schools so that these acts as they 
now stand provide for the consolidation of school districts for 
both elementary and secondary purposes ; 30 and for the classifi- 
cation of high schools into, one, schools that give at least four 
years' work and employ at least three teachers, two, schools that 
give at least three years' work and employ at least three teachers, 
and three, schools that give at least two years' work. 31 

The State Superintendent reported, for 1906-7, a total of 333 
high schools in the state. Eighty-two of these schools belong to 
the first class, employ three teachers and have four year courses ; 
forty-four belong to the second class, and one hundred and forty- 
nine belong to the third class. In addition to these there were 
about 120 schools in the state that offered some high school work, 
but usually less than two years. 

Montana : Montana provides for the local establishment and 
support of county high schools. These schools are free to all 
residents of the county having the proper qualifications. 32 Stu- 
dents from outside counties may be admitted but have to pay 
their own tuition. There were 15 accredited county high schools 
in the state in June, 1907. There were but 12 accredited city 

27 School Laws of Missouri, 1903, Section 9773. 

28 School Laws of Missouri, 1907, pp. 6 and 25. 

29 Report of Public Schools, Missouri, 1907, p. 12. 

30 School Laws of Missouri, 1907, p. 46. 

31 School Laws of Missouri, 1907, p. 88. 

32 Legislative Enactments of 1899, H. B. No. 69. 






States that Make No Legal Provision for Tuition 113 

high schools reported for the same year. The Superintendent., 
however, reported 25 city and district high schools for the year 
1905-6. A large number of the latter were probably one, two, 
and three year schools. 33 

Nevada: In 1895 the legislature of Nevada passed an act 
permitting the establishment and support of high schools by such 
counties as so desired. 34 Only one such high school at present 
exists in the state and that was organized in Elko county 
in 1906. 34 

New Mexico : The law provides for the establishment of 
high schools in cities and towns. Such schools are to be main- 
tained as other public schools are maintained. They are to be 
administered by the public school boards of such towns and 
cities. 35 

In 1905 there were only 8 high schools in the state. 36 They 
had an enrollment of 491 pupils. 

The state supports at least two normal schools which serve 
more or less the function of secondary schools. 

33 Report of Superintendent, 1905-6, and Course of Study for H. Ss., 
1907-8. 

34 Report of State Superintendent of Nevada, 1903-4. 

35 School Laws, 1908. 

38 Superintendent's Report, 1905, p. 7. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PRESENT LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE 
SOUTH 

The Southern states are treated in a separate chapter for the 
reason that their educational situation presents a different stage 
of development from that of the other states of the Union. 

This condition is the result of many different factors, but two 
of these, the race problem and the industrial and financial poverty 
growing out of the civil war are most prominent. As a result 
of these and other minor causes the most of these states have in 
the past had more than they could well manage in the attempt to 
establish and maintain the elementary schools. 

With few exceptions no state reports from this district have 
been available; as a result of this the present chapter will be 
largely confined to briefly presenting the present legal status of 
the high schools of this region. 1 

Maryland: The state of Maryland provides for the local 
establishment and support of county high schools. The state 
also provides for the payment of a direct subsidy to manual 
training departments run in connection with such schools, or 
separately. 

The law establishing the county high schools has been upon 
the statutes since 1872, and is in effect as follows : The county 
school commissioners may accept a high school building provided 
by any election district or contiguous election districts, and there- 
after provide for the maintenance of a high school in said dis- 
trict or districts and the salaries of teachers out of the general 
school fund. 2 

The act establishing manual training schools was passed in 
1898. This act in effect provides that when a suitable building 

1 The following is a list of the states investigated. The dates of publi- 
cation of the latest laws available follow in each instance the names of 
the various states. Maryland, 1908; Virginia, 1906; North Carolina, 1907 ; 
South Carolina, 1907; Alabama, 1908; Tennessee, 1907; Texas, 1907; West 
Virginia, 1905; Kentucky, 1907; Georgia, 1906; Louisiana, 1907; Mis- 
sissippi, 1906; Arkansas, ; Oklahoma, 1905. 

2 Legislative Acts of Maryland, 1872, Chapter 377. 



The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 115 

or suitable room or rooms connected with one of the large 
graded or high schools of the county, shall be provided by the 
county, the county school commissioners may accept the same 
and provide for the maintenance of a manual training course out 
of the general school fund and the state aid provided. 3 

The act further provides that the board of school commis- 
sioners may receive from the state treasury the amount of $1,500 
to be distributed equitably among the manual training schools 
and departments of manual training established in the county, 
as provided for in the act. It also further provided that no 
entire appropriation for the benefit of any manual training school 
shall be paid after the first annual appropriation, unless said 
school shall have had an average daily attendance of thirty 
scholars for the preceding year. 4 

The same act separately provides, under similar conditions, 
for the establishment and support, by state aid, of colored indus- 
trial schools. 5 Thus it is possible for any county in the state to 
receive for the aid of industrial education the sum of $3,000 
annually from the state treasury. 

In 1908 the legislature passed an act providing for state aid 
to certain high schools. The requirements are that such schools 
as receive state aid must be upon the approved list, and must 
offer in addition to the academic course a commercial course. 
It is provided that such appropriation shall not be made to more 
than one approved high school in a county whose total school 
enrollment for the year ending July 31, 1907 was less than 4,000 
pupils ; nor to more than two such schools in a county whose 
enrollment for said year was less than 7,500 pupils ; nor to more 
than three such schools in a county where the enrollment for said 
year exceeded 7,500 pupils. Provision was also made for four 
such schools in the city of Baltimore. 6 

The amount of the state subsidy is $1,000 per annum to each 
of such high schools, and the same is to be applied exclusively, 
to defray the expenses of said commercial course. 6 

A number of free scholarships are given by the different acade- 

3 Legislative Acts of Maryland, 1904, Chapter 584, Section 112. 

4 Legislative Acts of Maryland, 1904, Chapter 584, Section 117. 
"Legislative Acts of Maryland, 1904, Chapter 584. Sections 114-1S. 
•General Educational Act, 1908, Maryland. 



n6 The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 

mies and seminaries of the state. There were more than 80 
such given during the year 1904-5. 

All of the counties of Maryland except three, have accredited 
high schools located within their borders. There is a total of 
34 accredited high schools in the state, with an aggregate en- 
rollment, 1906-7, of 2,555 pupils. 7 

There were 5,277 in high school grades during the academic 
year 1905-6. s Many of these high schools begin the work with 
the seventh year, and the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth are 
the high school grades usually found in city schools. 

In 1906-7 eight counties received the entire appropriation of 
$3,000 each upon account of Industrial and Manual training 
schools and departments. During the same year each of the 
thirteen counties received the entire appropriation of $1,500 for 
the maintenance of manual training departments and schools. 8 
There was at this time but one county in the state that did not 
receive aid upon this account. 

Virginia: For many years county and district boards of 
education have been legally permitted to establish and maintain 
high schools or provide for instruction in high school subjects. 
These boards were also permitted to charge all pupils a tuition 
fee of not to exceed $2.50 per month. 10 

In 1906 the general assembly passed an act providing for the 
establishment and maintenance of high schools in districts and 
joint districts, and further providing for state aid to such schools. 

The act provides for the inspection of any such school by a 
competent high school inspector under the direction of the state 
board of education. When a school has met the requirements 
of said board, and when the district or joint district establishing 
the same shall have appropriated annually, from the local school 
funds, or from privately subscribed funds a minimum of $250.00 
for the support of such school, the state will appropriate an equal 
amount, provided, however, that the state will not appropriate 
more than $400.00 annually to any one school. No state funds 
will be appropriated under this act unless the said district estab- 
lishing such high school makes provision for maintaining the 

7 Report of State Superintendent of Maryland, 1907, p. 86. 

8 Report of State Superintendent of Maryland, 1906, p. 75. 

Report of State Superintendent of Maryland, 1906, p. 126. 
10 School Laws of Virginia, 1907, Section 79. 



The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 117 

primary and grammar schools of the district for a term of at 
least five months in each year. The state appropriation made 
for meeting the requirements of the act was $50,000.00 annu- 
ally. 11 This amount was increased in 1908 to $ioo,ooo.oo. 12 

The assembly of 1908 passed an act providing for the estab- 
lishment of normal training departments in certain high schools 
of the state. Under this act the state board of education is 
empowered to select the high schools which are to give this 
instruction. It is provided, however, that no more than one high 
school may be selected in any one county and the law by implica- 
tion requires that such a selection shall be made as will best 
conserve the interests of the rural schools. The maximum 
amount that may be received by any one such high school upon 
this account is limited to $1,500.00, which must all be applied 
to the payment of teachers in such normal department. 13 

Section 130 of the School Laws of 1908 provides an amount 
of not to exceed $20,000.00 to be applied to the establishment of 
departments of agriculture, domestic economy, and manual train- 
ing in at least one high school in each congressional district of 
the state. 

During the first year of the operation of the high school law 
of 1906, the number of these schools increased from 74 to 218. 
The consolidation of rural districts and the transportation of 
pupils at public expense undoubtedly did much to increase the 
number of such high schools. 14 

North Carolina: A general provision in this state makes it 
legal to teach high school subjects in any district school that 
employs more than one teacher; the expense of such instruction 
is to be provided for out of the regular public school funds. It 
is also provided that towns may appropriate money for the estab- 
lishment and support of one or more high schools within their 
own confines, or they may levy a special tax for the support of 
such schools. 15 

In 1905 there were 851 white public rural schools employing 
more than one teacher each. Eight hundred and thirty-two of 

11 School Laws of Virginia, 1907, Section 82. 

12 School Laws of Virginia, 1908, Section 130. 
1S School Laws of Virginia, 1908, Section 820. 

14 Virginia School Report, pp. 19 and 554. 

15 School Laws of North Carolina, 1907, Section 4113- 



n8 The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 

these offered some instruction in secondary branches of study. 
Such work in most of these schools was, upon the whole, not 
very satisfactory. 16 

The general assembly of 1907 created a new high school law 
to encourage and aid in the establishment and maintenance of 
high schools in rural communities. The act is quite similar to 
that passed in Virginia the previous year. It in effect provides 
that when a local community raises, either by gift, by subscrip- 
tion, or by local taxation a minimum of $250.00 per annum for 
the support of a high school the state will contribute an equal 
amount not to exceed $500.00 to any one school and not to in- 
clude more than four such schools in any one county. It further 
provides that in order to receive this aid any such school must 
give instruction for at least five months in the year, must employ 
at least three teachers, two at least of whom must be employed 
in the elementary grades, and must pay at least $40.00 per month 
to each and every one of its high school teachers. 

High schools established in towns of more than 1,200 inhabi- 
tants are not entitled to receive aid under the above act. Such 
schools are, however, entitled under said act, to contract with 
county boards of education for the tuition of nonresident pupils 
residing in the county or in towns in the county not supporting 
high schools; provided, however, that such tuition shall not ex- 
ceed $2.00 per month per pupil. The state in its turn agrees to 
reimburse such counties in an amount equal to one-half of the 
amount so expended; provided that the state will not reimburse 
any one such county in an amount in excess of $500.00 
per annum. 17 

South Carolina: In 1907 the legislature of South Carolina 
passed an act providing for state aid to rural high schools. The 
act provides for the establishment of high schools by counties, 
townships, unions of townships, unions of districts, and towns 
or cities with no more than one thousand inhabitants. 18 It also 
provided that any unit of organization of any of the above types, 

lf Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1905-6, p. 48. 

17 Public High School Law of North Carolina, 1907, Sections 1-9. 

18 The limit of 1,000 inhabitants has been ignored by the state high 
school board, holding that the legislature could not have meant to dis- 
qualify small towns with a population exceeding this number, (Report 
of State Superintendent of Education, 1907, p. 74). 



The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 119 

having already an organized high school may participate in the 
state aid described below, if it reorganizes under the provisions 
of the act. Any high school district organized under this act 
may, in order to raise the necessary funds, tax itself in an amount 
not to exceed two mills upon the dollar. 

Provision is made for the inspection and classification of high 
schools by the high school board or their authorized agents. The 
expenses of such inspection are provided for out of the general 
appropriation made for carrying out the purposes of this act. 

The schools are to be classified as two, three, and four year 
high schools. All of these schools are to require an equivalent 
of seven years previous training in the elementary schools as a 
prerequisite to entrance upon them. They also are required to 
offer a course in manual training. 

Section 7 of the act provides, " That the State Board of Edu- 
cation as now constituted, shall constitute the State High School 
Board. The State High School Board shall provide rules for 
the apportionment and disbursement of the state aid to the High 
Schools, giving due recognition to the number of years of High 
School Work, to the enrollment of pupils, the number of courses 
of study offered, the amount of industrial training given, and 
to such other matters of local merit as may appear to the board, 
after a careful examination of each High School : Provided, 
That no school shall receive more than fifty per cent, of the 
amount raised annually by taxation, subscription or otherwise: 
Provided, further, That no school shall receive aid unless it has at 
least twenty-five pupils and two teachers in the High School de- 
partment : Provided, also, That no school shall receive more than 
twelve hundred dollars annually from the appropriation provided 
in this act : Provided, further, That no county shall receive more 
than five per cent, of the annual appropriation provided for under 
this act." Five per cent, of the annual appropriation of 
$50,000.00 amounts to $2,500.00, the maximum amount that may 
be received under this act by any one county. 

It is provided that tuition shall be free to all qualified pupils 
in any county wherein any such school may be located. 19 

By July 1, 1907, fifty-eight high schools had qualified under the 
act, while numerous others failed to qualify in certain respects. 

19 Legislative Acts of South Carolina, 1907, An Act to Provide High 
Schools for the State. 



120 The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 

Mr. W. H. Hand, High School Inspector for the year, in his 
report says in part: 20 

" The fifty-eight high schools established under the high school 
act are distributed among twenty-eight counties, leaving thirteen 
counties that have not availed themselves of any portion of the 
state aid. 

" These high schools represent in the aggregate one hundred 
and nineteen school districts and six townships voting the high 
schools. Of the fifty-eight high schools, twelve of them levy a 
special tax for the support of the high school. Twenty-eight of 
these high schools are located in rural communities or in towns 
of fewer than 500 inhabitants; fifteen of them are in towns of 
more than 500 and fewer than 1,000 inhabitants; eleven of them 
are in towns of more than 1,000 and fewer than 2,000 inhabi- 
tants ; while only four are in towns of more than 2,000 
inhabitants. 

" The appropriations made by the State Board under the high 
school act amounted to a little more than $28,000.00, ranging 
from $222.00 to $800.00 to each of the fifty-eight schools. Every 
school receiving the state aid had in some way increased its 
efficiency — by additional teaching force, or by additions to the 
course of study. Almost without exception the high school 
attendance has been increased, because the tuition is free to any 
high school student in the county. In several instances the high 
school attendance has increased fifty per cent., and in a few 
it has doubled. This does not take into account recently estab- 
lished schools where none previously existed. 

" In the smallest of these high schools, those with the minimum 
of 25 high school pupils, there are at least eight months of 
teaching being done, and that teaching must come up to a reason- 
able standard of excellence or the appropriation will be 
withdrawn." 

Alabama : The School Laws of Alabama provide for the 
establishment and maintenance of one county high school in any 
such county, — not having in its confines an agricultural school, a 
normal school for white people, the Polytechnic Institute, the 
University of Alabama, the Industrial School for White Girls, or 
a high school free to all the children of the county, — as builds and 

50 Report of the State Superintendent of South Carolina, 1907, pp. 74-5 



The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 121 

equips a high school upon a plot of land of not less than five 
acres, the whole to cost not less than v$5,ooo.oo, and as deeds said 
building, its equipment and the five acres of ground upon which 
it stands to the State of Alabama. 

The state upon its part agrees to pay to any such school for 
the purpose of the payment of teachers' salaries in said high 
school the sum of $2,000.00 annually, the same to be paid out 
of any funds in the treasury not already otherwise appropriated. 21 

Tennessee: In 1899 the legislature of Tennessee passed an 
act providing for the establishment and maintenance, at the 
option of the county courts, of one or more high schools in each 
county of the state, the same to be supported in whole or in part 
by a county high school fund to be raised by a tax of not to 
exceed fifteen cents upon each one hundred dollars of taxable 
property in the county. 

It is also provided that counties may combine with seminaries, 
academies, colleges, or city boards of education within their 
respective boundaries for the purpose of establishing and main- 
taining high schools. All such schools must, however, be free 
to all the properly qualified secondary pupils within the bounda- 
ries of said counties. 22 

The public schools of Tennessee are divided into but two 
classes, namely, primary and secondary schools. The primary 
schools include the first five grades, and the secondary schools 
begin with the sixth grade. 

All high schools established, administered, and receiving state 
aid under the above act must employ at least three teachers. 

County boards of education are permitted to contract with 
city high schools or private secondary schools for the education 
of the pupils of high school age and qualification, residing in 
their respective domains. Such tuition as has been agreed upon 
may be paid out of the school funds of the various counties, 
provided that the same may be done without shortening the 
school term in these counties or decreasing the salaries of their 
primary teachers. 22 

A special act of 1907 provides for the acceptance by county 

21 School Laws of Alabama, 1908, Article 20. 

22 Public School Laws of Tennessee, Title, County High Schools, pp. 
30-34. 



122 The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 

high school boards of the properties of academies and small 
colleges, if the same are tendered them. 23 

The general school laws of the state have for many years per- 
mitted the establishment and maintenance of secondary schools 
in districts upon exactly the same basis as primary schools. 

Texas: The high schools of Texas are legally an integral 
part of the public school system, and are supported and adminis- 
tered as public schools. It is required, however, that in towns 
and cities which extend the scholastic age beyond seventeen, 
the legal age, a tax for school purposes must be levied and 
collected. 24 

The state raised in 1904-5 sixty-four and nine-tenths per cent. 
of all of the available school funds, and six and three-tenths per 
cent, was raised by the various counties, leaving twenty-eight and 
eight-tenths which was provided by the local communities. These 
funds were apportioned by the state to the counties and by the 
counties to the districts upon the school census basis. The 
school census of Texas includes all children in the state between 
the ages of seven and seventeen. 

West Virginia : The laws of West Virginia permit the estab- 
lishment of district and joint district high schools, the same to 
be supported, where necessary, by local taxation. These schools 
when once established may not be abandoned except upon a 
petition signed by 75 per cent, of the taxpayers of the district. 23 

A high school may be established in any district which has 
within its borders a town which has four or more schools in the 
same building. Such school when established shall be open to 
all of the qualified pupils in the district, and it shall be supported 
by a tax levied upon all of the taxable property in the district. 
This tax may not, however, exceed for the payment of teachers' 
salaries 25 cents upon each $100.00 of evaluation, and for build- 
ing equipment, etc. 15 cents upon each $100.00 of evaluation. 26 

Kentucky : " In Kentucky the high school is, where it exists, 
organized under the law providing for graded schools. It is 



23 Public School Laws of Tennessee, Title, County High Schools, p. 76. 

24 School Laws of Texas, 1907, p. 151. 

25 School Laws of West Virginia, 1908, Chapter XLV., Section 30. 

26 School Laws of West Virginia, Chapter XLV., Section 28. 



The Present Legal Status of High Schools in the South 123 

safe to say that the rural pupils have no high school facilities in 
the state." 27 

Georgia: No special mention of high schools is made in the 
laws of the state. Where such schools exist they are a part of 
the public school system. There were in 1906-7 one hundred and 
four accredited high schools in the state. These schools are com- 
posed of two classes, middle and senior high schools with three 
and four year courses above the seventh year respectively. 28 

Louisiana : In this state graded and central high schools may 
"be established by the parishes. The establishment of these 
schools must, however, be ratified by the state board of education. 
The site of such schools must be donated, and suitable buildings 
must be provided for, without any expense to the regular 
school fund. 29 

Mississippi : The school laws for this state were not available, 
"but in 1905 the state superintendent reported 68 high schools of 
a grade sufficient to prepare students for the university. These 
schools are located only in the larger incorporated towns. The 
Superintendent further states that only about 6 per cent, of the 
white children of the state are within walking distance of a 
high school. 30 

Arkansas : This state makes no special provision for high 
schools. Such schools where they exist are a part of the public 
school system. They may be included in any district system at 
the option of the local authorities. 

Oklahoma: Districts may add high school departments to 
the elementary system at their option. Counties may also estab- 
lish high schools. 31 The superintendent reports two county high 
schools in 1908. 



27 Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of Kentucky, 
1907, p. 23. 

28 Report of the Department of Education, 1907, pp. 208-209. 

29 School Laws of Louisiana, p 20. 

30 Report of the State Superintendent of Mississippi, 1904-5, p. 11. 

31 School Lav/s of Oklahoma, 1905. 



CHAPTER XII 

SOME HIGH SCHOOL STATISTICS AND THEIR PROBABLE 
MEANING 

The statistics presented in this chapter were compiled and 
deduced from statistics published in the various reports of the 
office of the United States Commissioner of Education for the 
years indicated. They are presented in order to show as far 
as may be; first, the present status and stage of development of 
secondary education, and particularly high school education in 
cities in each state, in rural communities, and in the state as a 
whole; second, to show what influence, if any, recent legislation 
and state aid has had upon the establishment, maintenance, 
attendance, and efficiency of rural high schools in particular, in 
each of the states. 

The interpretation of such statistics can upon the whole only 
be tentative since they are not of uniform reliability, and since 
there are so many unknown complicating factors that must enter 
into any such interpretation. In view of these facts it has been 
deemed essential to print them in full, thus giving each reader 
the opportunity not only to check up the basis of interpretation 
made by the writer, but also the opportunity to interpret them 
according to the light which an intimate knowledge of local con- 
ditions in certain states may present to him. The partial inter- 
pretation which is to follow their presentation will then be tenta- 
tive and based only upon such facts as may be in the possession 
of the writer. While not claiming absolute accuracy an interpre- 
tation based upon a knowledge of certain definite facts is, upon 
the whole, more likely to be correct than one based upon no 
such definitely known facts. This then will constitute the excuse 
for putting forth such tentative generalizations as may not appear, 
to some, to take into account all of the possible influencing 
factors. 

The first three vertical columns of figures, not including the 
dates, were taken directly as they are from the commissioners' 
reports. The census figures, 5-18, in the fourth and fifth columns 
are, with the exceptions of those for New Jersey and Minnesota, 
approximations secured as follows : The per cent, of school 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 125 

census children residing in the cities of 8,000 or more inhabi- 
tants was secured for each state. Having secured this per cent, 
the percentage of the approximate census, 5-18, for the state, 
found in the commissioners' reports was calculated and placed in 
column four. Column five contains the difference between the 
total approximate census, 5-18, in the state for each given year 
and the total approximate census, 5-18, in the cities of the state 
"for each given year. In a few of the states it was necessary to cor- 
rect the census of certain of the cities by reducing to the census 
age for the state as a whole. This was done by securing from the 
United States Census Reports of 1880, 1890, and 1900, the aver- 
age number of children of each year age, and correcting it by 
adding three successive years and finding their average, and using 
this average as the middle year of the three. A table was then 
formed giving the average number of children for each year 
age to each 1,000 of population. With this table and the popu- 
lation of a city it was possible to reduce the school census of such 
city to the same basis as that of the state. Since Minnesota takes 
no school census it was necessary to use the total population of 
the state and the sum of the populations of the cities in the state 
for each of the years in order to divide the approximate census, 
5-18, into the two items in columns four and five. The same 
procedure was followed for New Jersey for the years 1900 to 
1906. The figures in the three columns including the secondary 
and high school enrollments were taken directly from the com- 
missioners' reports. The figures in the remaining five columns 
were deduced from those of the preceding five columns. To 
secure the first two of the last five it will be necessary to add the 
two census columns and also the two high school enrollment 
columns. The figures in the middle column of the last five repre- 
sent the differences secured by subtracting the figures in the 
second from those of the first column of the five. 

An attempt was made to secure similar figures for New York, 
Pennsylvania, North Dakota, and South Dakota, but these were 
apparently so unreliable that the attempt was abandoned. The 
chief difficulty was with the school census statistics for the larger 
cities in these states. 

A certain number of inaccuracies is evident in these figures, 
but they do not upon the whole vitiate the value of the statistics 
since in most instances they occur only in a single year and do 



i 2 6 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

not affect the general direction of the curves of development, 
and since they are largely errors of census, the secondary and 
high school enrollments usually remaining fairly constant in their 
development. Certain large and sudden changes in the direction 
of the curves of relative secondary and high school enrollments 
may be explained by a reference to the figures and their source. 
To illustrate : We find in the curve of relative high school enroll- 
ment in cities of Massachusetts a sudden drop for the year 1904 ; 
referring to the statistical table we find that the high school 
enrollment has not only increased, but it has increased more 
rapidly than usual, while the census has increased twenty-seven 
per cent, in one year, and has decreased fifteen per cent, the 
following year. In the curve of relative enrollment in high 
schools in cities in Kansas for the year 1899 we have a somewhat 
similar condition only in this case a large increase in the enroll- 
ment in city high schools occurs and at the same time a very 
great decrease in the census. 

The unreliability of the school census figures may be due to 
one or both of two different causes, namely, the carelessness of 
those responsible for the collection of them, or the actual padding 
of them when such a course might prove of financial advantage 
to the local communities. The former is probably much the 
larger factor though numerous cases of the latter are a matter of 
record. 

It would then be possible in most cases to reduce the curves 
resulting from these figures to a fair amount of constancy with- 
out changing their real meanings, but this will not be attempted 
for the reason that no single rule of procedure would apply 
equally to the different cases without misrepresenting the actual 
situation. For instance, the first case given above, that of Mas- 
sachusetts, could probably be best corrected by passing the curve 
directly through the two including points and ignoring the point 
at issue, while the second case, that of Kansas, could probably 
l)e best corrected by passing a broken line through the two in- 
cluding points, raising it slightly at the point at issue. A smooth- 
ing of these curves by any other method would lead not to an 
elimination of the error but to a covering of it. It might on the 
other hand be better to correct such curves as those representing 
the relative high and secondary school attendance in California 
l>y some of the averaging methods. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 12 % 

The greatest drawback to be found in considering these figures 
is, that they do not extend back far enough. The figures for 
total secondary enrollment and total approximate census, 5-18, 
for each of the states under consideration were secured as far 
back as 1891. These figures were treated as suggested above, 
and a partial statement of the result is to be found printed with 
the statistics of each of these states. The separation of the 
figures for cities and communities outside of cities could not be 
made further back than 1897 because of the lack of proper data. 
Since much of the legislation directed to the end of extending 
rural secondary educational opportunities was passed previous to 
this time, it will be impossible fully to observe the effects of such 
legislation upon the statistics for rural high schools. 

A more complete statistical expression of the growth and con- 
dition of rural secondary educational opportunities would have 
been possible, if the statistics of cities or towns of from 4,000 to 
8,000 inhabitants could have been secured. This was, however, 
not possible. Nor were the units of organization of high schools 
in the various states given until 1906. Statements of the num- 
bers of high schools, existing under the various units of political 
organization, that directly affect the problem of rural secondary 
education, are given in a note accompanying the statistics for 
each state. The number of department or city high schools are 
not given in this note. 

A comparison of the following statistics with those presented 
in the various state reports will show in some instances a con- 
siderable disagreement. It was, however, deemed best to take 
these statistics from a single source, since in this case, having 
been gathered upon uniform blanks sent out by the office of the 
Commissioner of Education, they should represent a large degree 
of similarity between the different states. 



i 2 8 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



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138 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



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1 42 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

Some of the principal limiting factors which enter into the 
growth of high schools and high school opportunities during a 
given period, in any given state as a whole, or in the com- 
munities of that state are : first, the economic condition of the 
state, the economic conditions of the communities making up the 
state, and the economic conditions of the individuals making up 
the communities ; second, the distribution of the population of the 
state in terms of communities, and the distribution of the indi- 
viduals in these communities ; third, the social composition of the 
state, its distribution in terms of communities, and in terms of 
individuals in communities ; fourth, the social attitude of the 
state as a whole, of communities as wholes, and of the individuals 
making up these communities ; fifth, the relative degree of de- 
velopment of secondary education already attained in the state, 
and in the various communities of the state. 

The economic condition has two principal phases ; the one, that 
phase which enables the community individually or with the assist- 
ance of other communities represented in the county, or in the 
state, to raise the necessary funds to support the institution of sec- 
ondary education ; the other, that phase which hinders or permits 
the parent or guardian to dispense with the income arising from 
the productive industry of the individual youth, and to feed, 
clothe, and house him during the period of his attendance upon 
such institution. 

The distribution of population affects both of the above phases, 
because the distribution of wealth usually coincides with the 
distribution of population. It also adds another factor to the 
first of the above phases, namely this, that the per capita cost of 
the same quality of secondary education decreases, to a certain 
extent, as the enrollment in a given school increases. It is the 
distribution of wealth and population that largely determines the 
necessary degree of county or state aid to secondary education. 
The distribution of population raises, with the parent or guardian, 
the question of transportation to and from the school, or the 
question of board and lodging away from home, or both. It also 
raises the social question as to whether or not the advantages of 
a secondary education are outweighed by the disadvantages 
arising out of the situation presented when the child is com- 
pelled to leave home at such an early age. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 143 

The social composition affects the situation both positively and 
negatively. It may relatively increase or decrease the general 
financial and social support of such institutions, and it may 
relatively increase or decrease the attendance upon them. The 
negro population of the South unquestionably relatively decreases 
the financial support and enrollment of such schools, and it also 
decreases largely the sum total of the favorable social attitude 
toward them. The great foreign populations resident in our 
large cities affect the situation negatively in these respects. On 
the other hand certain local communities composed of selected 
individuals from other regions may affect it positively. Such 
communities may be found upon the outskirts of our great cities, 
in certain resident towns and cities such as Denver and Colorado 
Springs in Colorado, and in certain favored regions like the 
Santa Clara Valley in California. 

The social attitude also has two aspects as follows: first, do 
the parents or guardians of the prospective high school pupils 
in any given community regard a secondary education as essen- 
tial to the equipment of the children under their care, and if so. 
is this feeling sufficiently strong in them to overcome any 
economic considerations that may arise on account of the 
individual pupils under their care; second, does the community 
as a whole regard the establishment and maintenance of a public 
high school a social necessity and duty, and if so, is this social 
attitude sufficiently strong to overcome the financial difficulties 
arising out of the situation. 

The relative degree of development of secondary education 
in the community and in the state has been influenced by the 
absolute age of the state and the community, their degree of 
evolution, their economic condition, their distribution of popula- 
tion, their social composition and their social attitude. The 
absolute limit to the development of secondary education in the 
state as a whole, if an absolute limit is possible, is reached only 
when every individual of secondary school age and qualification 
in the state has within his reach such secondary educational 
opportunities as may not be further improved by the best talent 
of his time supplied with all the necessary funds. The absolute 
limit of enrollment in the secondary schools of a given commu- 
nity or state cannot then exceed the actual number of individuals 



144 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

of secondary school age in the said community or state. At a 
low estimate one-fourth of the census, 5-18, is of high school 
age, so that the maximum of relative enrollment in the high 
school or schools of any normal community is 25 persons per 
100 of census, 5-18. Since then the high school enrollment of 
no community under consideration has exceeded 10.87 individuals 
per 100 of census, 5-18, and most of these communities fall 
below 8 individuals per 100 of census, 5-18, and since the in- 
creased favorable social attitude resulting from the increased 
number of individuals vitally interested in these schools, will 
probably largely overbalance the difficulty experienced in making 
any~ final increment up to a much larger number per 100 of 
census, 5-18, the question of such final increment need not be 
considered in comparing the relative increase in such schools 
in any given state, provided that we take into consideration the 
other factors already named. 

An adequate study of the development of high schools in any 
given state includes all of these factors in their most complicated 
form. The available statistics upon the distribution of wealth, 
population, social composition, and social attitude toward educa- 
tion, cannot to any great extent be secured. The per capita 
wealth of states and cities can be found, but unless we have its 
distribution in relation to the distribution of population in units 
at least as small as townships, we can do little or nothing with 
it, in so far as it relates to rural high schools. In like mannei 
the distribution of the different elements composing the popula- 
tions of these small units is essential to a complete study of the 
problem of the extension of rural secondary educational opportu- 
nities. The attitude of the social mind toward secondary educa- 
tion is even more difficult to measure, since any such attitude 
is a complex of tradition, emulation, imitation, fashion, and 
personal or family exploitation of the community wealth. It 
can be measured, but we have as yet no adequate measure of it. 

Many of the states have attempted to equalize somewhat the 
secondary educational opportunities by legislative acts. In many 
cases they have succeeded in relieving the economic pressure 
attendant upon the establishment and maintenance of secondary 
schools. In others they have relieved the individual parent or 
guardian of a part of the economic pressure by merely shifting 
it to the local community. The degree of relief from such eco- 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 145 

nomic pressure varies, of course, directly with the increase of the 
size of the unit of social organization bearing the burden. 

Since the various states are in different stages of economic, 
social, and political evolution, it will be necessary in discussing 
the statistics of such states, to consider the evolutionary stages 
of development of the problem of secondary education in each 
of them. The steps in the evolution of the high school in any 
normal society which is in a formative stage of development, is 
in effect as follows : 

First, it is necessary that there shall be a considerable number 
of pupils who have completed the elementary school and who 
are desirous of further education which is not available in the 
community. 

Second, the elementary course of study is, after a vigorous 
campaign, extended so as to include certain high school branches 
of study to be taught by the regular force of the elementary 
school, or a one or two year high school is established which 
is supported by an additional tax and taught by a special high 
school teacher. 

Third, an increase in enrollment occurs with an accompanying 
tendency to extend the course to include the third and fourth 
years of the high school. 

Fourth, an increased tax is levied and one or more additional 
teachers are employed. 

Fifth, an increased demand for higher qualifications of 
teachers arises, and a consequent raising of the standard of effi- 
ciency occurs. 

In short the high school in its normal development passes 
through the increased enrollment stage, and the increased teacher 
stage, up to a certain degree, before its real refinement begins. 
This is essential because the institution itself must in process of 
its making react continuously upon the social mind, thus securing 
a social attitude in the community that will enable it to proceed in 
its development. 

As a result of this the first thing to be looked for in a state 
that has not evolved its secondary educational system to any large 
degree, is an increase in the number of high schools, followed 
by a more rapid increase in enrollment in these schools. It is 
an utter impossibility for a community that has previously given 



146 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

no secondary educational opportunities, to suddenly evolve a 
large prosperous secondary school of high grade, unless such a 
community is a new one composed of an aggregation of individ- 
uals of considerable wealth, and with the proper social attitude 
previously developed elsewhere. 

Since in regard to the development of secondary education, 
the rural community is in a stage of development similar to that 
of the new state, it could not be expected to maintain the same 
standard of excellence in its high school as that maintained in 
the older high schools of the cities, even if the economic problem 
were completely solved for it. In view, then, of the fact that the 
rural high school is in its infancy in most of the states, the best 
measure of its development and present status will be the 
measure of numbers; and since upon the whole the city with 
less than 8000 inhabitants will not have more than one high 
school the measure here must be an absolute one, not regarding 
the increase, but the spread, of population. 

Of course the only real measure of the extension of secondary 
educational opportunities is the relative number of pupils of 
secondary age and qualifications that are within actual reach of 
high or other secondary schools; and the measure of the quality 
of education given in these schools is in direct proportion to the 
relative number of teachers employed, their training, their teach- 
ing ability, and the kind of apparatus furnished them. But since 
such information as is implied in the above cannot all be secured 
we shall confine ourselves to the statistical matter at hand. 

To recapitulate then, in view of the material at hand: 

The best measure of the extension of secondary educational 
opportunities to rural communities will be the absolute increase 
in the number of high schools in districts, villages, and towns. 

The best test of efficiency and of economic support will be the 
number of teachers employed to the school. 

The best rough measure of both the distribution of high 
schools and the social attitude in rural communities will be the 
rapidity of relative increase of enrollment in high schools outside 
of cities, together with the relative increase or decrease of the 
number of secondary pupils in schools other than high schools. 

The stage of evolution of secondary education in the state as a 
whole, in cities of the state, and in the rural communities of the 
state, will be best shown by the relative increase and status of 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



147 



enrollment in all secondary schools of the state, in high schools 
in cities of the state, and in high schools in the rural commu- 
nities of the state. 

Interpreted thus, and in view of the four principal limiting 
factors which enter into the growth, the support, the distribution 
and the efficiency of high schools, namely, the economic condition 
and the distribution of wealth, the distribution of population, 
the social attitude, and the social composition with the distribu- 
tion of its elements, we shall be able to arrive at a just estimate 
of what the various states are doing for the secondary education 
of their rural youth. 



8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
I 




a, 


■■::.:::' 

Snowing n< 
pupils ft e 


Plate I-MAINE 

.of high end ietondar 
kcb 100 of census — 


jjchool 








...-»- 




N„ 








£^**" 


'"'' 
S* 








** 


'"" 




/ 
/ 
/ 






1 


- .— — 


_» -^ 








/ 












906-154- 




NO.R 


JR'AL H! 


rH 5CH( 


015. 












| ■ ■ 








'*'"*—, 




697- 142 




















*""*" 


InRuralH 
In City H. 
Total Sec 
InSchoo 
















~*^. 








»—. 


- 


5. 

Pupils. 

snotH-S 












1897 38 $9 00 01 02 03 04 05 



Maine: The above high school statistics for Maine do not 
tally with those of the state reports for the same years (see 
chapter V). This is in all probability clue to the fact that 
many of the schools giving only partial high school work did not 
report to the Commissioner of Education. At any rate the same 
schools have reported continuously through the ten years, and 



148 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

12 others have been added during this period. It will then be 
impossible to compare the relative figures and curves for this 
state with those of others. 

The slow increase in the number of schools is due doubtless 
to two factors ; first, the law providing a state subsidy to such 
schools has been in operation since 1872, and most of the commu- 
nities that were able to support such schools established them 
many years ago; second, entrance examinations have been insti- 
tuted for some years, and the standard of these has been con- 
tinually advanced, so that some of the schools that might 
otherwise be listed have been eliminated. 

A gradual increase in the standard of excellence of these 
schools has occurred in the past few years as is shown by the 
increase in the average number of teachers employed per school 
in the rural high schools. In nine years the one teacher rural 
high schools have decreased from 43 to 41 per cent, of the whole, 
and the two teacher rural high schools have decreased from 
76 to 50 per cent, of the remainder. 

The relative enrollment in city high schools shows a substan- 
tial increase, the relative enrollment in rural high schools shows 
but a very slight increase, the relative enrollment of secondary 
pupils other than high school pupils shows a large relative de- 
crease, and the relative enrollment of secondary pupils in all 
types of schools shows but a very slight increase. Judging from 
the more rapid development of the preceding six years and from 
the much slower development of the nine years under considera- 
tion, one would be compelled to conclude that the evolution of the 
high schools of the state is under the present social and legal 
status almost completed. 1 

Massachusetts: The number of rural high schools in the 
state has practically remained the same during the nine years 
under consideration. The number of city high schools has, 
however, increased from 64 to 88. Most of this increase is 



'The manufacturing and agricultural populations of Maine are about 
equal in numbers, including about 57 per cent, of the whole. About 15 
per cent, of the whole is employed in trade and transportation. The 
foreign population is relatively small and is to be found mostly in the 
cities. As to the distribution of the population more than 50 per cent, of 
the total area of the state has but from 6 to 18 inhabitants to the square 
mile, and about 37 per cent, has but from 18 to 45 inhabitants per square 
mile. 



Some Hi?h School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



149 



undoubtedly due to the fact that many towns classed as rural 
have, upon an increase of population, passed to the city class. 
Thus it will be seen that the actual increase in the number 
of high schools in rural communities was, for the period, 25 
or less. This increase in the number of city high schools and 
the lack of increase in the number of rural high schools is par- 



9 
8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 

a 

1 






1 1 1 1 — 

Plate II MASSACHUSETTS 

Showing no. of fi/gtiand secondary sclwol 
pupils To each IOO of cerous-5 to 18 








































t 










****^' 










•-*"" 














/ 










/ 








--- 




/£_ 


^" 








/ 
/ 
/ 










\% 




NO.! 


JURAL HI 


5n .5010 


)L5 






SALHS. 

ty ns. . 






_-—=-.— '.-? in ci 







--nroTA 
— 'in s 


u sec.pu 
mow.} no 


Pil.4. 






















_«*' 
„«"• 


























1897 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



tially explained by the fact that the total census, 5-18, for cities 
has increased 27 per cent., while the total census, 5-18, for rural 
communities has decreased 27 per cent. At the same time the 
total census, 5-18, in the state has increased 12 per cent. 

The absolute increase in the number of secondary pupils in 
the state as a whole was 49 per cent., the absolute increase in 
the number of high school pupils in cities was 74 per cent., and 
the absolute increase in the number of high school pupils in 
rural communities was but 16 per cent. The relative increase 



150 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

in the number of secondary pupils in the state was 32 per cent., 
the relative increase in the number of high school pupils in the 
state was 39 per cent., the relative increase in the number of 
high school pupils in cities was 24 per cent., and the relative 
increase in the number of high school pupils in rural districts 
was 100 per cent., while there was practically no relative increase 
in the number of secondary pupils other than high school pupils. 

There was a substantial increase in the average number of 
teachers to the school in the rural high schools, the average 
number rising from 2.9 in 1897 to 3.7 in 1906, which makes an 
increase of 27 per cent. The relative number of one teacher 
high schools has decreased from 29 to 7 per cent, of the whole, 
and the relative number of two teacher high schools has de- 
creased from 47 to 30 per cent, of the remainder. 

Summing up the above we find that the spread of rural high 
schools in the state has been comparatively small, that the in- 
crease of relative enrollment in these schools has been enormous, 
that the increase of relative enrollment in city high schools has 
been reasonably large, that the relative number of pupils enrolled 
in schools other than high schools has remained about the same, 
that the total relative enrollment of secondary pupils in all types 
of schools in the state shows a substantial increase, that the 
average number of teachers to the school in rural high schools 
has largely increased, and that the relative numbers of one and 
two teacher high schools have largely decreased. 

The tremendous relative increase in enrollment in rural high 
schools, the comparative lack of increase in the number of these 
schools, and their increased efficiency, as measured by the large 
relative increase in the number of teachers employed in them 
are no doubt largely due to the workings of the free tuition law 
of the state, which, as will be pointed out in the following chap- 
ter, does not encourage the establishment of high schools. As 
stated elsewhere an act was passed in 1891 compelling towns 
not supporting high schools to pay the tuition of their qualified 
secondary pupils in outside high schools. This was followed in 
1895 by an act providing for the complete reimbursement of the 
poorer towns. In 1902 a new act was passed providing for the 
reimbursement, in part or in whole, of all tuition fees paid by 
towns of less than 500 families, provided that they did not sup- 
port a high school; while up to the end of this period towns of 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 151 

less than 500 families supporting high schools received but 
$300.00 each per annum. Another factor which influenced the 
decrease of one teacher high schools was the act of 1902 which 
provided that a high school must employ at least two teachers 
in order to receive the subsidy of $300.00. 

It appears, then, that the high school acts of Massachusetts 
are upon the whole tending to refine the secondary educational 
institution, rather than to increase its spread or distribution. 
This condition of affairs would be highly satisfactory if the 
distribution of high schools was also sufficiently extensive. This 
is, however, not the case as is shown by the figures given in 
chapter VI of this study. 2 

New Jersey: The number of rural high schools shows an 
increase of 34 per cent, in the nine years from 1897 to 1906, 
and the number of city high schools shows an increase of 65 
per cent. The large increase in the number of city high schools 
is largely due to the fact that several of the towns have passed 
into the city class during the period, so that the actual spread 
of high schools over the territory is represented by the actual 
increase in the number of rural high schools plus a large part 
of the increase in the number of city high schools. The total 
increase in the number of both rural and city high schools was 
for the period, 42 per cent. 

There has been but a slight increase in the average number 
of teachers employed to the school in the rural high schools in 
the state. The number of one teacher high schools has rela- 
tively decreased from 21 to 20 per cent, of the whole, and the 
number of two teacher high schools has decreased from 29 to 
21 per cent, of the remainder. 

The statistics show a very large increase in the gross number 
of pupils enrolled in city high schools, and a slight increase in 
the gross number of pupils enrolled in the rural high schools. 
The total number of secondary pupils enrolled in all of the vari- 

2 The agricultural population of Massachusetts is very small, not exceed- 
ing 6 per cent, of the whole. About 46 per cent, of the whole is engaged 
in manufacture and about 23 per cent, in trade and transportation. The 
foreign population is very large (30 per cent.), and is well distributed over 
the territory. The total population is, upon the whole, well distributed, 
about two-thirds of the western end of the state having a population 
of from 45 to 90 individuals per square mile, and the remainder 90 or more 
individuals per square mile. 



152 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

ous types of schools in the state also shows a very large absolute 
increase. The number of census children has, however, also 
largely increased particularly in the cities so that these figures 
do not give the actual development for the period. 

The gross increase in the number of census children, 5-18, was 
for the state 21 per cent., for cities 32 per cent., and for rural 
communities less than 4 per cent. The gross increase in the 
total number of secondary pupils was, for the entire state, 61 
per cent., while the gross increase in the number of high school 
pupils was, for cities, 138 per cent., for rural communities, 19 
per cent. The relative increase in the number of secondary 
pupils enrolled in all types of schools was 34 per cent. ; and the 
relative increase in the number of high school pupils was, for 
the entire state, 58 per cent., for cities of the state, 79 per cent., 
and for rural communities 15 per cent. During the same time 
the relative number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of 
schools other than high schools decreased 16 per cent. The great 
difference in the relative increase of enrollment in the city and 
rural high schools is probably largely explained by the fact that 
many of the larger rural high schools passed over into the city 
class during the period under consideration. It appears then, 
from the statistics preceding the period under discussion and 
from the accompanying curves that the status of secondary edu- 
cation in New Jersey was exceedingly low in 1891 and that it 
has not greatly increased in the succeeding fifteen years. It is 
true that the relative increase in enrollment has been fairly large, 
but the general status is so low that the curves show no great 
inclination. At the present rate of increase it will take New 
Jersey in the neighborhood of fifty years to reach the present 
status of secondary education in Massachusetts. 

It is a difficult matter to discover the cause for this condition 
of affairs. In 1900 New Jersey had the densest population of 
any state in the Union, excepting Massachusetts and Rhode 
Island. This population is upon the whole well distributed over 
the territory. The foreign population does not nearly equal that 
of Massachusetts and it is in general confined to the larger cities, 
which show the largest relative increase in high school enroll- 
ment. The Negro population is small, the relative proportion 
of illiterates is low, and three-fifths of the population is urban. 
There are relatively a large number engaged in agriculture, rela- 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 153 

tively a smaller number engaged in manufacture and relatively 
a larger number engaged in transportation than in Massa- 
chusetts. A large proportion of the school funds is practically 
raised by the counties and distributed upon the teacher and 
aggregate daily attendance basis, so that financially the districts 
are better off than those of most other states. It is true that 
the population has been increasing very rapidly by immigration 
in recent years, but the relative increase has been but slightly 



7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 








- r-" " 1 1 1 








Plate 1II-NEW JERSEY L 

■Shorn, no, np. <7f- hi«S dud 5 erondavy school 
pupils To etch 10V of c<?niu3 — ^S +0 fS 


1 
















J906-75 


m.QDUni HIGH 6CK00L5 








n , d 


AL H.5. 










— . ■ ■■ immW CiTY tt.S. 


*"T_ 




- 


5E0.PUPI1S 


'_ " — " "— - ' ' "! ,IMI " 






•— *— •—« schools, hot h-5. 




■ ■ ■ - 




..... ._ . 
















«»*"*" 


;-' 


~&?z 


»•••• "■' 


-.--* 


— • ""* 












































..»• 


^••~.« 


1897 $8 m 00 01 02 03 04 05 



greater than that of Massachusetts, and the relative number of 
foreign born among these immigrants has been much lower than 
in the above state. 

Since then neither the economic condition, the distribution of 
population, nor the social composition, is sufficient cause for the 
relatively low status of secondary schools in this state, the real 
cause must be sought in the social attitude of the people toward 
this particular type of education and institution. It would seem 
upon the whole that the parents or guardians of the youth in 
this state are not as much interested in the secondary education 
of their children as those of most other states. Nor is the com- 
munity as a whole as vitally interested in the institution of 



154 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

secondary education as other communities. It is not the inten- 
tion to go into this matter any further here, and yet it might 
be well to suggest the fact that the school laws of this state never 
mention such an institution as the high school, while in most 
other states the members of the district school boards are con- 
stantly exposed to the unconscious influence wrought by the 
attitude of state as expressed in these laws. 

California : The increase in the number of high schools in 
California from 1897 to I9°6 has been very great, rising from 
71 to 128, which makes an increase of 80 per cent. In addition 
to this the number of city high schools increased from 15 to 23, 
or 73 per cent. In view of the fact that a part of the increase in 
the number of city high schools was due to the passing of certain 
towns into the city class, it appears that at least 60 new high 
school districts were created during the nine years. 

The increase in the average number of teachers employed to 
the school in rural high schools has also been remarkable, rising 
from 2.8 in 1897 to 4.8 in 1906. The number of one teacher 
high schools has decreased from 12 to 1 per cent, of the whole, 
and the number of two teacher high schools has decreased from 
46 to 6 per cent, of the remainder. 

The increase in aggregate enrollment has also been remarkable, 
amounting to 127 per cent, in the case of the total secondary 
enrollment, 134 per cent, in the case of cities, and 147 per cent. 
in the case of rural districts. The relative increase based upon 
census, 5-18, has been for all secondary pupils 101 per cent., 
for pupils in city high schools 93 per cent., and for pupils in rural 
high schools 152 per cent. ; while for secondary pupils in all types 
of schools other than high schools there has also been a relative 
increase of 47 per cent. 

The accompanying curves show that the rapid increase in 
relative enrollment began in 1899-1900. It has also been pointed 
out that the relative increase in secondary pupils was, for the 
six year period beginning with 1891, much slower. The first 
large increase in the number of rural high schools also occurred 
in 1899- 1900. This was the period of public agitation for the 
purpose of securing legislation leading to the state aid of secon- 
dary education. In the early part of the year 1901 the legislature 
submitted the constitutional amendment which legalized the 
levying of a state tax for the support of high schools. In 1902 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 155 

the amendment was adopted by a very large majority. In 1903 
the act providing state aid was passed. 

The large relative increase in the enrollment in rural high 
schools was probably largely due to two factors as follows : 
first, the increase in the number of rural high schools due to the 
substantial state aid offered, and the awakened public sentiment 
in favor of secondary education brought about by the agitation 



9 
8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
I 






. Piste 1V-CALIF0BN1A 












5ftown 

pup: is 


2 PC. of h IJh ind. Secondary jihool 
Vi ezch 100 of census - 515 '0 






-•'/ 














MO.RUOAL HIGH SCH0OL6 




/ 




■"•^^™*^" 




— — ■ "^ m 








/ 

/ 


«> 








s 








-> 


37-71 


» - 


/ 








a # »* 


,<< 


N 




/ 
























K H.5. 
If H.S. 

SE&.PUplf 































^-" 


**•*<, 




*-— 




















\ffl 99 00 Gl 



of the question and the appearance of the high school tax item 
upon the tax receipts; second, the favorable public sentiment 
which reacted upon the individuals and caused them to make 
greater efforts and sacrifices to keep their children in school 
beyond the elementary school age. The comparatively large 
relative increase in the enrollment in city high schools was also 
due to two factors ; first, the awakened public sentiment ; second, 
the throwing of their doors open to all comers without any tuition 



50 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



charge from 1903 to 1905, and then, only with such a charge as 
they saw fit to make not in excess of the actual cost of instruction 
less the amount received from the state upon account of each 
pupil in attendance. 

Even the curve representing the relative enrollment in secon- 
dary schools other than high schools shows the effect of the 
awakened public interest in secondary education. 

The legislative acts of California together with the accom- 
panying favorable public sentiment has resulted ; first, in a great 
spread of high schools over her territory; second, in a great 
relative increase of enrollment in those schools ; third, in an 
increased efficiency as measured by the addition of many and 
better teachers. 8 

Colorado : The number of high schools in this state increased 
from 31 to 42, or 35 per cent, in the nine years under considera- 
tion. There was, however, a much larger increase in the average 
number of teachers per school in the rural high schools, the 
average rising from 3.0 to 4.3. The relative number of one 
teacher high schools decreased from 19 to 4 per cent, of the 
whole, and the relative number of two teacher high schools 
decreased from 32 to 15 per cent, of the remainder. 

The' curves of average enrollment in high schools show a 
great irregularity during the period from 1899-1900 to 1902-3. 
This irregularity is due to the fluctuation of census for the suc- 
cessive years, and to some extent to the opposite fluctuation of 
high school enrollment. This fluctuation of census and high 
school enrollment was no doubt largely due to the shifting of the 
population and the financial condition brought about by the 
industrial upheaval, which resulted from the prolonged struggle 



3 Nearly one-half of the area of California has an average of less than 
2 inhabitants per square mile, nearly one-fourth has an average of from 
2-6, approximately three-sixteenths has from 6-18, about one-seventeenth 
has from 18-45 and the remainder has from 45-90. The distribution of 
population is not, however, as disadvantageous to the support of the high 
schools as might appear from the above, since a large number of the 
people in the sparsely settled districts dwell in villages and small towns. 
About 24 per cent, of the population is engaged in agriculture, about 25 
per cent, in mining and manufacture, and about 22 per cent, in trade and 
transportation. Nearly 27 per cent, of the population is foreign born or 
colored; this foreign element is relatively well dispersed through the 
native population. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



157 



between the capital and labor elements in the state. Naturally 
the cities show the result of this to a greater extent than the 
rural communities, since the rural high schools are largely 
located in agricultural regions. The increase in the relative en- 
rollment of all secondary pupils is much more regular, showing 



10 -wai?»RAL wen schools ^~^ 



/ 



~ Plate Y-'cbtORApa \ 

Showing no.of Inyi and s ecdh dtfiry woof 
Put>ib to each 100. of census f L 5.tb )P> 



/ 



=7N 



.*>\f 




■fr 



— "^- ■ I Htg^U 

— — ■ f i. vn i StHOCii NOT H.3. 



/ 



-^ 



1897 98 93 00 01 02 03 04 05 



a large decrease only in 1902. This break in the regularity of 
the curve is due to a large increase in the estimated census, 
5-18, and a considerable falling off in the relative increase of 
high school enrollment, particularly in the cities. The increase 
in census, 5-18, in cities was 34 per cent., and the increase in 
census, 5-18, in rural communities was 15 per cent. The gross 
increase in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types 



158 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

of schools was 83 per cent., the increase of enrollment in city 
high schools was 88 per cent., and the increase of enrollment 
in rural high schools was 100 per cent. The relative increase 
in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of schools 
was 50 per cent., the relative increase in the enrollment in city 
high schools was 39 per cent., the relative increase in enrollment 
in rural high schools was 73 per cent., while the relative increase 
in the number of secondary other than high school pupils was 
but 11 per cent. 

It seems then that the spread of high schools in the state for 
the period under discussion has not been very great, when we 
take into consideration the great increase of wealth in the state 
and the comparatively small number of such schools already 
established. The curves show a fairly large increase in the 
relative number of secondary pupils in the state and particularly 
in the rural high schools, while there has been but a very slight 
increase in the relative enrollment of secondary other than high 
school pupils. 

It would appear that the time is ripe in Colorado for the state 
to assume a part of the burden of secondary education in the 
poorer and less densely populated regions. The showing of the 
relative numbers enrolled in rural and city high schools would 
warrant this statement. Relatively less than half as many of the 
rural youth as of the city youth are in high schools. 

Washington : The increase in the absolute number of high 
schools in Washington has been, for the nine years under con- 
sideration, remarkable, rising gradually from 30 in 1897 to 43 in 
1900, and then suddenly increasing to 70 in a single year. The 
increase was regular from this time with the exception of a 
slight falling off in 1903, which was probably due to the legisla- 



4 About 21 per cent, of the people of the state are engaged in agriculture, 
about 17 per cent, in manufacture, about 13 per cent, in mining, and about 
22 per cent, in trade and transportation. About one-half of the area of 
the state has less than 2 inhabitants per square mile, about two-fifths has 
from 2-6 inhabitants per .square mile, about three-fortieths 6-18 inhabi- 
tants perjj square mile, and the remainder, or one-fortieth, 18-45 
inhabitants per square mile. The mining population is, however, quite 
largely grouped into towns of considerable size, and the agricultural popu- 
lation is, in a large part of the region, fairly well massed. The foreign 
population is not exceptionally large and is fairly well distributed, and 
is mostly engaged in agriculture and mining. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 159. 

tive act which placed a minimum requirement upon the number 
of pupils that constituted a year grade. The gross increase for 
the period amounted to 206 per cent. 

The average number of teachers to the school in rural high 
schools has increased from 1.8 to 2.6, or 44 per cent., while the- 



to 

9 

8 
7 

6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 






Plate Vf -WASHINGTON , 

Snown? no. of hi^h and .secondary stfiogi 
pi-pi/JTo «#ch "00 of census- Sta 18 






/ 

s 

/ 


N'O.RURAL HI6H SCHOOLS 


906-92 
















/ 
/ 






m III 1 1 












7-30 






_ -7 


/ 
f 












/ 
/ 
/ 


V 


*r*~ 




/ 
/ 




y 


J? 








\ 

\ 
\ 


/ 
/ 




* 


s 








.*' 


\ 


/ 
/ 


^•' 


f * 








«•-- • 


.... -.-V 










yS 


.-*-«. 


CH00L3 N0f U.S. 












«M">«M! 






^~ 


•^ 


























.— ■"* 






1897 98 99 00 01 02 03 04- 05 



relative number of one teacher rural high schools has decreased 
from 43 to 32 per cent, of the whole, and the relative number of 
two teacher high schools has decreased from 64 to 43 per cent, 
of the remainder. 

With the exception of a minor fluctuation the relative enroll- 
ment in city high schools slightly dropped, up to and including 
the year 1902, when it rose regularly and very rapidly to an 



160 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

enormous height. The relative enrollment in rural high schools 
increased very slowly for two years, then rapidly for one year, 
then decreased slightly up to and including 1902, when it rose 
rapidly and regularly to the end of the period. With a minor fluc- 
tuation, the relative number of secondary pupils enrolled in all 
types of schools rose slowly up to and including the year 1902, 
thence very rapidly up to and including the year 1906, while the 
relative number of secondary pupils enrolled in other than high 
schools decreased very slightly. 

The increase in census, 5-18, was for cities 120 per cent., and 
for rural communities 22 per cent. The gross increase in the 
total number of secondary pupils in the state was 196 per cent., 
the gross increase in enrollment in city high schools was 289 per 
cent., and the gross increase of enrollment in rural high schools 
was 247 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils enrolled 
in all types of schools was 107 per cent., the relative increase in 
high school enrollment in cities was yy per cent., and the rela- 
tive increase in enrollment in rural high schools was 183 per cent., 
while there was a slight relative decrease in the enrollment of all 
secondary schools other than high schools. 

It appears then, that in this state a very great increase in the 
spread of high schools has occurred, which is no doubt in large 
measure due to the state aid given to them. In considering this 
fact it must be remembered, however, that almost a third of these 
schools employs but one teacher. The proportion of one teacher 
high schools has, however, in the last nine years materially de- 
creased. The proportion of individuals enrolled in secondary 
schools is at present quite high, the proportion enrolled in rural 
high schools is rather low, but the proportion enrolled in city 
high schools is remarkably high. There is nothing to my knowl- 
edge in the legal status of these schools that will explain this 
latter fact, nor is there anything to explain the sudden prolonged 
upward inclination of the curve representing this enrollment for 
the four years ending 1906. It seems that the explanation of 
this condition must be due, either to a change in the social com- 
position of the cities, to a very great social awakening, to the 
fact that the people of the surrounding rural regions are sending 
their children into the cities to secure the advantages of the 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 161 

secondary education offered there, or indeed to all of these 
factors. 

The curves for this state show clearly that the secondary edu- 
cation is in a rapid stage of evolution. The enrollment in the 
high schools of the cities is relatively far in advance of the en- 
rollment in the rural high schools, but the relative increase in 
enrollment in the rural districts for the last nine years has greatly 
exceeded that of the cities. This condition may be found in any 
of the commonwealths in this particular stage of their develop- 
ment. 5 

Connecticut: The number of city high schools in the state 
seems to have varied greatly in the successive years under con- 
sideration. This was doubtless due to the fact that at least five 
or six of the schools were located in towns that were continually 
passing back and forth from the rural to the city lists. To secure 
the actual increase of high schools in rural communities it will 
be necessary to assume a stable number of high schools for cities. 
Assuming then, that there are 16 city high schools we have for the 
period an increase of 10 rural high schools or, expressed in dif- 
ferent terms, an increase of about 21 per cent. 

The average number of teachers to the school in rural high 
schools has increased from 2.5 to 3.2 or 28 per cent. The relative 
number of one teacher high schools has decreased from 29 to 24 
per cent, of the whole, and the number of two teacher high schools 
has decreased from 47 to 22 per cent, of the remainder. 

The gross increase in the census, 5-18, was, for cities 22 per 
cent., and for rural communities 8.9 per cent. The gross in- 
crease in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of 
schools in the state was 59 per cent. ; and the gross increase of 
pupils in high schools was, for the cities 71 per cent., and for 
the rural communities 65 per cent. The relative increase in the 

"About 27 per cent, of the population of Washington is engaged in 
agriculture, a little more than 20 per cent, is engaged in manufacture, 
about 5 per cent, is engaged in mining, and about 18 per cent, is engaged 
in trade and transportation. About one-third of the area of the state 
has less than 2 inhabitants per square mile, about four-ninths has from 
2-6 inhabitants per square mile, about one-fifth has from 6-18 inhabitants 
per square mile, while the remainder or only about one forty-fifth of the 
area has from 18-45 inhabitants per square mile. About 25 per cent, of 
the population is either foreign born or colored. This foreign element is 
to be found largely in or about the cities. 



i6 2 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of schools in 
the state was 34 per cent. ; and the relative increase of pupils in 
high schools in cities of the state was 40 per cent., and the rela- 
tive increase of pupils in rural communities of the state was 51 
per cent., while the relative increase in the number of secondary 
pupils enrolled in schools other than high schools was 18 per cent. 



9 
3 
7 

6 

5 
4 
3 
2 
J 








1 1 1 1 1 








Plate VII--CONNEGTICUT. 

Sfiowipa no. of hion and secor\4.«ry .school 
pupil 9 ts eich lOO of -census— 3 to 18 


















III ..... 






W. RURAl Hi 








— — " 1MCIT1 H.S. 


















— -— — •— IN SCHOOls NOT M.S. 




1 










)7-48 











..♦*"' 





















^ 

S 
















^ 






























— .., 


-._— 


. 








— »••— ' 



























1697 .98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



The laws providing for the reimbursement of tuition went 
into effect in this state in 1897-8. Up to 1901 the state pro- 
vided but two-thirds the amount of the tuition up to and includ- 
ing $30.00 for each pupil. The operation of the law was limited 
to towns with a tax list of $900,000.00 or less. In 1903 free 
transportation with state reimbursement to the extent of one-half 
the amount expended up to $20.00 for each pupil was provided 
for by the legislature. 

The curves of relative high school and secondary school at- 
tendance show, in general, no great effect of this legislation if 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 163 

indeed they show any such effect. For the four years preceding 
the period under consideration the relative number of secondary 
pupils in schools of all types slightly decreased. There is a con- 
siderable rise in both the absolute and relative attendance in 1900, 
but this period does not coincide definitely with any legislation. 
There is of course no question but that a portion of the increase 
is due to these laws but how great the influence has been would 
be difficult to estimate. 

In view of the density of population, its distribution and the 
wealth of the state, it would seem that the status of secondary 
education is rather low. The degree of efficiency of the rural 
high schools, as measured by the number of teachers employed, 
has somewhat increased during the period under discussion. 
Taking into consideration the area of the state and the size, 
density, and distribution of the population, the number of rural 
high schools is much too small, and their spread as measured by 
the increase of rural high schools has not been very great during 
the period under consideration. This latter is probably the great- 
est factor underlying the relatively low status of the relative en- 
rollment in rural high schools. 6 

Vermont: The number of high schools in Vermont has in- 
creased in the nine years from 49 to 70, or 42 per cent. This has 
been a fair increase when we take into consideration the distribu- 
tion of population and wealth. The average number of teachers 
to the school in rural high schools has but slightly increased, 
rising only from 2.4 to 2.5, or 4 per cent. The relative number 
of one teacher high schools has increased from 20 to 30 per 
cent, of the whole, while the relative number of two teacher high 
schools has only decreased from 46 to 42 per cent, of the re- 
mainder. 

Taken as a whole the increase in the enrollment in secondary 
schools both absolute and relative has been rather small. The 
curve for city schools shows a considerable slope, but the relative 
proportion of the population dwelling in cities is exceptionally 



"The population is very dense in Connecticut, averaging about 155 
individuals per square mile. Relatively speaking this population is very 
evenly distributed over the territory. About 28 per cent, of it is either 
foreign born or colored. This foreign element is also well distributed. 
About 12 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture, about 46 per 
cent, in manufacture, and about 19 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



164 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

low so that the effect upon the curve for general attendance is 
rather small. On the other hand the curve representing the en- 
rollment in schools other than high schools shows a decided rela- 
tive decrease. The statistics for cities for the year 1897 are so 
irregular that we shall ignore them in presenting the absolute and 
relative increases of census and enrollment for the period, so that 
the figures to follow will apply only to the last eight years in 
the case of such cities. These figures are then as follows : The 
absolute increase in census, 5-18, was, for cities, 31 per cent., 
and for rural communities, 2 per cent. The absolute increase in 
the number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of schools was 
18 per cent., and the absolute increase in the number of high 
school pupils was, for cities, 66 per cent., and for rural communi- 
ties, 36 per cent. The relative increase in the number of secondary 
pupils enrolled in all types of schools was 10 per cent. ; and the 
relative increase in the number of high school pupils was, for 
cities, 26 per cent., and for rural communities, 33 per cent. Dur- 
ing the same period the relative number of pupils enrolled in 
schools other than high schools decreased 37 per cent. 

Referring to the curves of secondary and high school attend- 
ance, we find that the curve representing the total relative num- 
ber of secondary pupils in the state dips in the centre, reaching 
its lowest ebb about the year 1901. This decline in relative num- 
bers began in 1894, as is suggested by the note accompanying the 
statistics for the state. Up to 1902 the curve representing rela- 
tive high school enrollment in rural communities shows but a 
slight increase in elevation; at this point, however, it began to 
increase its slope much more rapidly. The curve for total sec- 
ondary enrollment also began to increase its slope rapidly at this 
point. The curve representing the enrollment in secondary 
schools other than high schools also shows a slight tendency to 
increase its slope. The curve representing relative enrollment in 
city high schools began to increase its slope more rapidly in 1900. 
The relative proportion of pupils and the relative proportion of 
the population in the cities is however so small that the increase 
in relative enrollment in these cities does not affect the general 
increase for the state very greatly. Taking the foregoing into 
consideration it would seem that the universal compulsory tuition 
law of 1902 has had a stimulating effect upon the secondary 
school attendance in the state. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 165 

To sum up, then, the increase in the number of rural high 
schools has been fairly large, but their efficiency, as measured by 
an increased teaching force has not improved much, and the in- 
crease in the enrollment has been very small, when we take into 
consideration the status of the attendance at the beginning of 




1897 9& 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



the period. It is probable that the relative increase in the number 
of secondary pupils will in the near future be small, unless some- 
thing is done to equalize more nearly the economic burden at- 
tendant upon the establishment of an increased number of rural 
high schools, and an increased efficiency in those already 
established. 7 



7 The state of Vermont is, as a whole, rather thickly populated. This 
population is mostly irregularly scattered over the territory. The foreign 
element is. however, comparatively small and distributed fairly well with 



1 66 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

New Hampshire: The number of rural high schools in the 
state has only increased from 46 to 48, or 4 per cent., and the 
number of city high schools has only increased from 6 to 9. On 
the other hand the average number of teachers to the school in 
rural high schools shows a fair increase rising from 2.3 to 2.9, 
or 26 per cent. ; while the relative number of one teacher high 
schools has decreased from 34 to 16 per cent, of the whole, and 
the relative number of two teacher high schools has decreased 
from 43 to 40 per cent, of the remainder. 

There is apparently something the matter with the statistics of 
high school enrollment for the year 1897, the city enrollment 
being much too low and that of the rural communities much too 
high, while the census statistics show no great variation. After a 
careful study of the statistics as a whole, together with a scrutiny 
of the accompanying curves, it was decided in order to make up 
the necessary analysis to add 400 to the enrollment for cities, and 
subtract the same from that of the rural communities for the 
year in question. With this correction the following figures were 
worked out. The correction is also placed in the accompanying 
plate of curves. 

The census, 5-18, increased 42 per cent, in cities and decreased 
14 per cent, in rural communities. The absolute increase in the 
number of secondary pupils in the state was 79 per cent. ; and 
the absolute increase in the enrollment of high school pupils was, 
for cities 28 per cent., and for rural communities 41 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils en- 
rolled in all types of schools was 20 per cent. ; the relative in- 
crease in the number of pupils enrolled in all types of schools 
other than high schools was 8 per cent. ; the relative increase in 
enrollment in high schools in rural communities was 63 per cent., 
while there was a decrease of 9 per cent, in the relative enroll- 
ment in high schools in cities. 

New Hampshire is the only state under consideration which 
actually shows a decrease in the relative enrollment in high 
schools in the cities. It is impossible with the information at 
hand to find any explanation of this. The relative enrollment in 
rural high schools shows on the other hand a substantial though 

a tendency to concentration in the north central region. About 37 per cent, 
of the people are engaged in agriculture, about 25 per cent, in manufacture 
and about 14 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 167 

somewhat irregular increase; the irregularities in the curve are 
largely due to variations in census. The curve shows no im- 
mediate effect of the compulsory tuition law of 1901, the distinct 
increase in slope beginning in 1903-4. Upon the whole the rela- 
tive increase in the number of secondary pupils has been fair. 
An unusual proportion of these pupils are, however, enrolled in 



8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 






e P^te 1X-NEW HAMPSHIRE , 

5bowm^ no. ©J- hien ar»A stcontety school 
(wpiU foftHh 100 of censuj _ i to 13 






















t t 


— ~... 


*»», % 


..-' 


•*"' 










.•»"" 









-— * -^ 














^**» «^ 






■< 








"S. 


^ 






^ 


















".'.Tf^ 




1 SCHOOL 




06-48 





















ftURftW H.$. 


















— . — <t- in 5<n(»tS Hit HiS. 

1 T i 


"™"""™ inn 




1 ( 1 'l 


1897 98 99 



other than high schools. Some advance has been made in the 
matter of efficiency as measured by the increase in the relative 
number of teachers employed in rural high schools, but there has 
been practically no increase in the spread of high schools in the 
state. 8 



f Most of the area of the state has a population of from 18 to 45 inhab- 
itants per square mile, a small portion in the north, probably one-fifth of 
the total area, has but from 6 to 18 inhabitants per square mile. The 
foreign population is not exceptionally large, being about 22 per cent, of 
the whole. It is mostly to be found in the extreme north and south 



1 68 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

Michigan : The number of rural high schools in this state 
has increased during the nine years from 257 to 359, or 39 per 
cent. When we take into consideration the number already 
established the increase has been very great, the actual spread 
being measured, of course, by the absolute increase which was 
102. On the other hand the average number of teachers to the 
school in rural high schools has increased but very slightly, rising 
only from 2.7 to 2.8, or less than 4 per cent. At the same time 
the relative number of one teacher rural high schools has in- 
creased from 19 to 24 per cent, of the whole, and the number 
of two teacher rural high schools has increased from 35 to 40 
per cent, of the remainder. Thus the relative efficiency of these 
schools as measured by the number of teachers employed has 
decreased. 

The increase in the number of census children, 5-18, has been 
for cities 20 per cent., and for rural communities 8 per cent. The 
absolute increase in the number of secondary pupils in all types 
of schools has been 35 per cent. ; the absolute increase of enroll- 
ment in high schools has been, for cities 51 per cent., and rural 
communities 31 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils has 
been 21 per cent. ; and the relative increase in the number of high 
school pupils has been for cities 25 per cent., and for rural com- 
munities 20 per cent. ; while the relative number of secondary 
other than high school pupils has remained about the same. 

To sum up, there has been during the period under considera- 
tion a very great spread of high schools in the state ; the enroll- 
ment in the secondary schools has increased very much slower 
than in the preceding six years, as suggested in the note printed 
with the statistics for the state ; and the actual efficiency of these 
schools measured by the relative number of teachers employed has 
decreased. The fact that the relative increase of enrollment in 
cities has been greater than in rural districts, in disregard of the 
fact that the number of rural high schools has increased enor- 
mously, while the rural population has only increased slightly, 

portions of the state. In the thinly populated northern region about one- 
half of the inhabitants are foreign. About 22 per cent, of the population 
is engaged in agriculture, about 43 per cent, in manufacture, and about 13 
per cent, in trade and transportation. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 169 

must inevitably lead to the conclusion that there has been little 
growth in the positive public sentiment toward secondary educa- 
tion in the nonurban regions of the state. This may be partially 
due to the fact that there are only 12 township high schools in 
the state, all of the others being district schools which charged 
tuition to all nonresident pupils whose parents or guardians had 
to meet these obligations individually. Free tuition may however 
be provided by the various districts hereafter. It would seem 



7 
6 
5 

4 
3 
2 

1 






. , p. 








;.« Pldt£X< MICHIGAN^ 

•Snowing no.of hi%\ and seanciry school 
pupils -tpeatfi 10V of ce/isus- 5 U> i& 












> 
















"■^ 


^ 


-^ 




— -m 






• »**"*" 








-~ 


........ 


# ,»*** 


*—*«-.. 


*" 








1 


iO.RQRfiL 


fll&H *5 


:hdols 


, 








' 








RURAfrt.S» 




^mi^w^»1| 






ft*ar 


■■JjLJUjgfifiClTVH.S 


2 








™^*** - * 


















- 




□" 


—•«-" 


r *-. 


1897 '- 


99 00 0) 02 03 04 05 



that a compulsory tuition law with partial or complete state aid 
might do wonders in this state. A small state subsidy would also 
work to increase the efficiency of such schools as are already 
established, besides gradually creating others in the more remote 
districts of the state. 9 



"About 30 per cent, of the area of the state has from 6-18 inhabitants 
per square mile, about 45 per cent, has from 18 to 45 inhabitants per 
square mile, and the remainder, or 25 per cent., has from 45 to 90 persons 
per square mile. About 24 per cent, of the population is foreign, and this 
foreign element is rather evenly scattered over the territory. About 33 
per cent, of the population is engaged in agriculture, 22 per cent, in manu- 
facture, 3 per cent, in mining, and 17 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



170 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

Wisconsin : The number of rural high schools in Wisconsin 
has increased during the nine years from 162 to 220, or 35 per 
cent., and the number of city high schools has also increased 7, 
making a total increase of 65, which largely represents the spread 
of high school opportunities in the state. The increase in the 
number of rural high schools from 1899 to 1900 was 50 of which 
48 appeared upon the list for the first time. Apparently no change 
occurred in the legal status at this period which would explain 
this large increase. 

The relative efficiency of these schools, as measured by the 
average number of teachers to the school in rural high schools, 



b 
4 
3 
2 

1 






PJal&XI-WlSCONSIN 














Snowine* no. of higfi and secondary $<nooj 
(jifpi/sTo -ejidi 160 of cei1si>5-5.ft> ia 




— -* 













^. 


** * 


s — 


— — 


_— — .;, 


'"•"■w: 


^=-.rr 


<-- 














I9C 


& .rjn N0 ' RL,RAL Hl<irt SCHOOIS 








,H« 


'TV M.S. 


, — ^^-^_^ 


1 "I 


PUS 






— ...... « T 0T7U. 5EC.Pl 

1 1 




_._-„— M schools not h.s. 


— fH-H-H 





1897 S3 $9 00 0? 02 03 04 05 



and the relative decrease of one and two teacher high schools, 
shows a decided improvement. The average number of teachers 
has increased from 2.6 to 3.5, or 34 per cent., the relative num- 
ber of one teacher high schools has decreased from 19 to 1.8 per 
cent, of the whole, and the relative number of two teacher high 
schools has decreased from 41 to 28 per cent, of the remainder. 

The increase in census, 5-18, has been, for cities 24 per cent., 
and for rural communities 1.8 per cent. The absolute increase 
in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of schools 
has been 56 per cent. ; and that of high schools has been, for cities 
93 per cent., and for rural communities 52 per cent. 

The relative increase in the total number of secondary pupils 
has been 45 per cent. ; and the relative increase of high school 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 171 

pupils has been, for cities 54 per cent., and for rural communities 
49 per cent. ; while the relative number of pupils enrolled in 
schools other than high schools has remained about the same. 

The curve for relative high school enrollment in rural com- 
munities shows a sudden rise for 1900, and also carries with it 
the curve of relative enrollment in all types of schools. This is 
in large part due to the increased enrollment in rural high schools 
which is no doubt largely the result of the great increase in the 
number of such schools. The free tuition law practically went 
into effect in 1903, and the slight increased tendency of the curve 
for relative rural high school enrollment to rise in the last two 
years of the period, may be, and probably is, partially due to this 
fact. 

The relatively low status of high schools in cities of Wisconsin, 
as measured by the enrollment in them, cannot, upon the whole, 
be attributed to any factor other than social attitude. Compared 
with that of cities, the status of rural high schools is very good, 
when we take into consideration the distribution of population 
and wealth in the state. The amount of direct state subsidy 
given to these schools has been insufficient in the past to greatly 
increase their spread in such a territory, but it has evidently 
aided greatly in the improvement of their efficiency. The act of 
1903 relating to township high schools will in all probability work 
to increase their extent of distribution. 10 

Minnesota: The growth in the number of rural high schools 
in this state has for the nine years been very great, increasing 
from 88 to 160, or 81 per cent. Thus it appears that the actual 
spread of these schools as measured by numbers has been very 
large. This result is not surprising when we take into considera- 
tion the fact that Minnesota gives a very large state subsidy to 
such schools as meet the requirements of the state authorities Not 
only does the effect of the state aid show in the increase for the 
total period, but a reference to the plate representing high school 
development for the state will show that the increase of the 



"About 34 per cent, of the area of Wisconsin has but from 6 to 18 inhab- 
itants per square mile, about 48 per cent, but from 18 to 45, and about 
18 per cent, from 45 to 90. About 25 per cent, of the population is foreign 
born. This element is well distributed through the native population. 
About 37 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture, 24 per cent, 
in manufacture, and 14 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



172 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Mcanini 



amount of state subsidy from $800 in 1900 to $1,000 in 1901, 
and the subsequent increase to $1,500 in 1903 appears to have 
affected definitely the lengths of the lines representing the relative 
increase in the numbers of such schools, for these years. It will 
be remembered that the Minnesota act requires no definite finan- 
cial obligation upon the part of the community establishing such 
a school. 

The average number of teachers per school in these rural high 
schools has increased from 2.8 to 3.8, or 35 per cent. At the 
same time the relative number of one teacher high schools has 
decreased from 5.6 to 0.6 per cent, of the whole, and the relative 
number of two teacher high schools has decreased from 40 to 
8.8 per cent, of the remainder. Thus it will appear that though 
the state makes no financial requirement of the communities 
establishing these schools, the requirements of the standard estab- 
lished under the law has resulted in greatly increasing their 
efficiency. These schools are all measured by the standard of 
university requirement. 

The increase in the approximate census, 5-18, has been, for 
cities 37 per cent., and for rural communities 15 per cent. The 
absolute increase in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in 
all types of schools has been 92 per cent. ; and the absolute 
increase in the number of high school pupils has been, for cities 
67 per cent., and for rural communities 133 per cent. 

A reference to the plate of high school development for the 
state will reveal a great decline in the curve for relative enroll- 
ment of high school pupils in cities for 1906. The cause of this 
is due to a sudden and large increase in the approximate census, 
5-18, for cities. Since the statistics end here it is impossible to 
tell whether this represents an error due to a mistake of the 
census office in estimating the population for that year, or 
whether the estimates of the preceding years were too low. This 
being the situation, it will probably be best to give the relative 
increase for this item both in terms of the first eight years, and 
the full nine years. The relative increase in the number of secon- 
dary pupils enrolled in all types of schools has been 56 per cent. ; 
and the relative increase of high school pupils has been, in cities, 
for eight years 36 per cent., in cities, for nine years 23 per 
cent., and in rural communities 101 per cent. ; while the relative 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 173, 

increase in enrollment of secondary pupils other than high school 
pupils has been, for eight years 51 per cent., and for nine years 
7 per cent. 

The status of high schools in the cities of the state is not 
exceptionally high and the relative increase in the enrollment in 
the term of years under consideration has at best been relatively 
rather low. The cause of this must again be sought largely in 



8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 














e Plate ^-MINNESOTA ■ 1 

5tT0Win£ bo. af *ii#h #n6 secorii&M school 
^jupiii to each 186 of ccni-y-s -1 Sib 16 | 




NO. RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 




.U.S. 


























— ..— .— tN SCHOOL WOT H.S. 






8 


s 


— .— — 


^ 


'*"" 


V 




.... „ 




rf"* 1 * 


\ 


^» 





/ 




















- „.-" 








•~— *•*" 






»•••""' 


"""•».„ 


'»'"* 
















































... 


1897 % 99 00 01 02 03 04- 05 



a lack of public sentiment. The status of these schools in rural 
communities as measured by relative enrollment is also very low, 
but this is undoubtedly due to at least three factors as follows: 
first, there are probably many one, two and three year high 
schools in the state that receive aid as graded schools, and which 
are not reported in the foregoing list; second, the wide distribu- 
tion of population makes it difficult to establish and maintain 
four year high schools in many communities; third, there is evi- 



174 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



dently a lack of favorable public sentiment in many of the 
rural communities. 11 

Ohio: The number of rural high schools of this state has 
increased in the period under consideration from 531 to 781 or 
47 per cent. This is an enormous development: the spread of 
such schools as measured by the absolute increase in numbers, 
which was 250, has certainly been very great. On the other 
hand the relative efficiency of these schools as measured by the 
teachers employed has largely decreased. There has been no 
gain in the average number employed, to the school, and the 
number of one teacher high schools has increased from 41 to 
45 per cent, of the whole, while the number of two teacher high 
schools has increased from 53 to 85 per cent, of the remainder. 

There has been an increase, in cities, of 27 per cent., in the 
census, and a decrease in rural communities of 3.8 per cent. The 
absolute increase in the number of secondary pupils enrolled 
in all types of schools has been 41 per cent. ; and the absolute 
increase in the pupils in the high schools has been, for cities 
54 per cent., and for rural communities 51 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils in 
the state has been 31 per cent.; and the relative increase in the 
number of high school pupils has been for cities 20 per cent., and 
for rural communities 57 per cent. ; while there has been a rela- 
tive decrease of 20 per cent, in the relative number of pupils 
enrolled in secondary schools other than high schools. 

A reference to the curves representing relative high and 
secondary school enrollment for the state will show that their 
inclination upward is considerably increased after 1903. This 
is probably largely due to the fact that the legislature passed a 
compulsory tuition law the preceding year. 



"About 50 per cent, of the area of the state has but 6 to 18 or less 
inhabitants per square mile, about 48 per cent, has but 18 to 45 inhabit- 
ants per square mile and not to exceed 2 per cent, has from 45 to 90 
inhabitants per square mile. Thirty per cent, of the population is of 
foreign birth. This element is distributed all over the territory much as the 
native population, but with a slight tendency to accumulate in the regions 
of the cities. About 40 per cent, of the population is engaged in agricul- 
ture, 17 per cent, in manufacture, less than 2 per cent, in mining, and 17 
per cent, in trade and transportation. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



175 



The general status of secondary education in this state is upon 
the whole rather low when we take into consideration the age 
of the state, its wealth and density of population, and the distri- 
bution of these. The evenness of the distribution and compo- 
sition of population is evidenced by the nearness of the two 
curves representing high school enrollment. There is apparently 
at present no need of an increased number of high schools in 
the state, but on the other hand there is a distinct need of 



6 

5 
4 

3 
2 

I 












. . piatexm-QHiq 

.Showing 110. of hi w> -and Jerand»»y 
Scdooi pupilifoeaih /OOofcenjui-Siaig 


















# .-- - ' 


• 















***»«.^ 




•"^"^..^ 





^•** 


- 


— «„_ 


^w- 






1906-78 


NO. RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 




■ f 


DRALH.S. 






16 




HHCHX 






\L SEC. PUPILS 


■ „ „ .,,„ 






=—._..— W .SCHOOLS HQJ M.S. 


















T~- 


1897 58 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



improvement in their quality as evidenced by the size of the 
teaching force in the larger part of them. A direct state subsidy 
to the poorer districts supporting these schools, the same to be 
graduated in an inverse relation to their wealth would, if a 
certain standard of efficiency were set, doubtless improve the 
status of secondary education in the state very much. 12 



"Almost the entire area of the state has from 45 to 90 inhabitants per 
square mile. The foreign born and negro population taken together does 
not exceed 14 per cent, of the whole, and this element is largely confined 
to the cities. About 27 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture. 
28 per cent, in manufacture, 2 per cent, in mining, and 18 per cent, in 
trade and transportation. 



176 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

Indiana: The number of high schools in Indiana has in- 
creased 206, or 66 per cent, during the nine years. This repre- 
sents a very large relative growth and also a great spread of 
secondary educational opportunities in the state. At the same 
time the relative quality of these schools has apparently decreased, 
the increase in the average number of teachers to the school 
being but 4.5 per cent., while the relative number of one teacher 
high schools has increased from 40 to 54 per cent, of the whole, 
and the relative number of two teacher high schools has increased 
from 44 to 56 per cent, of the remainder. 

The increase in the approximate census, 5-18, has been, for 
cities 37 per cent., and for rural communities 6.3 per cent. The 
absolute number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of 
schools has increased 65 per cent. ; and the absolute increase 
of high school pupils has been, for cities 49 per cent., and for 
rural communities 82 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils in the 
state has been 48 per cent. ; and the relative increase in the 
enrollment of high school pupils has been, for cities 8.3 per cent., 
and for rural communities 71 per cent. ; while the relative increase 
of secondary other than high school pupils has been 27 per cent. 

Turning to the plate of curves representing the status and 
growth of high schools in this state, we find in 1899 a great 
deflection of the curve of relative high school enrollment. This 
is due to a great reported increase in enrollment in these schools 
for the year. The following year the census reported for cities 
was unusually large and the high school enrollment had dropped 
back to its normal number. The curve for total secondary en- 
rollment in the state also shows these deflections. It is probable 
that it would not have misrepresented the situation much if the 
points in question had been ignored in drawing each of these 
curves. The other deflections of the curves are also largely due 
to a great increase in the reported enrollment in secondary 
schools for the year 1905. 

To sum up, there has been a very great extension of secondary 
educational opportunities in the state, as measured by the spread 
of rural high schools, but the efficiency in these schools, as meas- 
ured by the relative number of teachers employed, has decreased. 

As measured by relative enrollment, the status of city high 
schools was quite high in 1897, but the relative increase during 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 177 

the period has been insignificant; while by the same measure the 
status of rural high schools was rather low in 1897, but there 
has been a substantial relative increase since that time. 

As in Ohio there is probably little need at the present time 
to increase the number of rural high schools in the state. The 
main problem now would appear to be their refinement, and this 



9 
8 
7 

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5 
4 
3 
2 

! 








, PiateXlV-JNDIANA J 

obowmeno.of high andjeamdirv^diaoi 
pupils To oth 100 of ceruuj-5to iQ 












Na HUtiAL HI'trH 6CH00L5 "1 




















•-*--- -TOTAL. SeC,PVPIL,S 










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189? SB 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



can only be brought about by increasing their financial resources, 
hence the necessity for state aid to the poorer of them. 13 

"About 25 per cent, of the area of Indiana has from 18 to 45 inhabitants 
per square mile, and 75 per cent, from 45 to 90. This population is almost 
as dense and evenly distributed as that of Ohio. The foreign born and 
negro population taken together do not much exceed 8 per cent. This 
element is to be found largely in or about the cities of the state. Nearly 
38 per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture, 23 per cent, in manu- 
facture, and 15 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



iy8 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

Illinois : The number of rural high schools in this state has 
increased in the nine years from 283 to 371, or 31 per cent. The 
spread of these schools is measured, however, by the absolute 
increase in numbers which was 88. The average number of 
teachers to the school has increased from 2.6 to 3.1, or 19 per 
cent. ; and the relative number of one teacher high schools has 
increased from 20 to 21 per cent, of the whole, and the relative 
number of two teacher high schools has decreased from 44 to 
36 per cent, of the remainder. 



7 

6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 






.PMe XV- ILLINOIS- . 












"Shbwihsr no. of high and saondirv 
school pi^Ji 1 i to weft 100 of Cfasuf- Sh> IS 








no.ruraL hi&h schools 1 






906-3/1 












JUAIH.S. 
ITYHS. 




■ .,.— .INC 




97-263 




. 








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. '— 


1897 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



The statistics of census, and of secondary and high school en- 
rollment seem, for some unknown reason, to be unreliable for 
the year 1897, so we shall not use them in measuring the 
development of high school enrollment in the state, but begin 
with the year 1898, thus using but the eight year period. 

The increase in census, for the eight year period, was, for 
cities .7 per cent., and for rural communities 8 per cent. The 
absolute increase in the number of secondary pupils enrolled in 
all types of schools was 36 per cent. ; and the absolute increase 
in the number of high school pupils was, for cities 47 per cent.,. 
and for rural communities 42 per cent. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 179 

The relative increase in the total number of secondary pupils 
in the state was 30 per cent. ; and the relative increase in the 
number of high school pupils was, for cities 46 per cent., and 
for rural communities 31 per cent.; while there was no relative 
increase or decrease in the number of pupils in schools other 
than high schools. 

As will be seen by the above figures and the accompanying 
plate representing high school development, the relative status 
of high and other secondary schools in the state was very low 
at the beginning of the period, and there has been but a compara- 
tively slight improvement up to the present time. The relative 
enrollment in city high schools is particularly low. This, it is 
to be presumed, is on account of the fact that the city of Chicago 
is included. It is true that there has been a considerable increase 
in the number of rural high schools in the state, but these are 
evidently not very well attended. There has also been some 
improvement in the quality of instruction given in these schools, 
but this improvement has been slight when it is considered in 
connection with the relatively small number of high schools 
added to the list. At the present rate of increase it will take the 
rural high schools of the state eleven years to reach the present 
status of those of Indiana, and 17 years to reach the present 
status of those of Ohio. 14 

Iowa : The number of rural high schools has increased in this 
state from 302 to 330, or 9 per cent. The absolute increase for 
the nine years was 28. During the same period the average 
number of teachers employed to the school has increased from 
2.7 to 3.3, or 22 per cent., while the relative number of one 
teacher high schools has decreased from 22 to 14 per cent, of the 
whole, and the relative number of two teacher high schools has 
decreased from 40 to 31 per cent, of the remainder. 

There has been an increase of 18 per cent, in the census, for 
cities, and a decrease of 4.5 per cent, for rural communities. 



14 About 55 per cent, of the area of Illinois has a population of from 
18 to 45 inhabitants per square mile, and about 45 per cent, has from 45 to 
90 per square mile. The foreign born and colored population combined 
does not exceed 22 per cent, of the whole, and this element is largely con- 
fined to the cities, particularly Chicago. About 26 per cent, of the people 
of the state are employed in agriculture, 25 per cent, in manufacture, 2 per 
cent, in mining, and 22 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



180 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

The absolute number of secondary pupils enrolled in all types 
of schools has increased 24 per cent.; and the absolute increase 
in the enrollment of high school pupils has been, for cities 43 
per cent., and for rural communities 25 per cent. 

The relative increase in the total number of secondary pupils 
in the state has been 24 per cent. ; and the relative increase in 
the number of high school pupils has been, for cities 21 per 



8 
7 

6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 






J 


Maiie»k-iowA. 












Showing HO. of hiVtt and iecond»ru 5<l>ool 
pupils T» Wth IBorfcenivz, Stolft 


















— - — ■ 


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.--• 


,— — • "*" 


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ISN 




NO. RURAL HI&H SCHOOLS 
















AIH.S. 
YH.S. 










1897-302 










— 


— TOTAL 5EC.PUPIL5 
— IN 5CH00LJ NM H.5. 
































mi 98 S3 00 01 02 03 04 05 



cent., and for rural communities 25 per cent. ; while there has 
been no perceptible increase in the relative number of secondary 
other than high school pupils. 

It will appear from the above and from the accompanying 
plate of curves for this state that the status of secondary educa- 
tion in the state is rather high, but that the relative increase of 
status as measured by the addition of high schools and enrollment 
has not been very great. On the other hand there has been a 
considerable increase in efficiency as measured by the number 
of teachers employed in rural high schools. Taking into consid- 
eration the composition of the population and its distribution, the 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 181 

wealth, the great national wave of public sentiment, and the 
original status of rural high schools in the state, it would seem 
that a greater relative increase in their number and enrollment 
should have occurred. The great difficulty in this, as in many 
others of the Middle Western states, is the relative distribution 
of wealth and population, with the accompanying problem of 
support and transportation. A much greater development 
occurred in these schools the preceding six years. 15 

Missouri : The number of rural high schools in this state 
has increased during the nine years from 172 to 332, or 93 per 
cent. The actual spread of such high schools was the absolute 
increase in numbers or 160. The average number of teachers 
to the school has decreased from 2.5 to 2.2, or 12 per cent. The 
relative number of one teacher rural high schools has increased 
from 2J to 42 per cent, of the whole, and the relative number 
of two teacher schools has decreased from 53 to 42 per cent, of 
the remainder. 

The number of census children has increased 18 per cent, in 
cities, and decreased 0.3 per cent, in rural communities 1 . The 
absolute number of secondary pupils in the state has increased 
42 per cent. ; the increase in the absolute number of high school 
pupils has been, for cities 74 per cent., and for rural commu- 
nities 83 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils en- 
rolled in all schools has been 36 per cent.; and the relative 
increase in the enrollment in high schools has been, for cities 47 
per cent., and for rural communities 83 per cent. ; while there 
has been a relative decrease of 22 per cent, in the number of 
secondary pupils other than high school pupils. 

The relative increase in secondary school enrollment for the 
preceding five years was just twice as great, being about 8 per 
cent, per year. 

The relative status of secondary education in this state is 
certainly exceedingly low. The curve for relative enrollment 

"No part of Iowa has a population of less than 18 inhabitants per square 
mile. Eliminating a few city areas the number of inhabitants varies from 
18 to 45 individuals per square mile. The foreign born and negro popula- 
tion taken together does not reach 15 per cent, of the whole. This element 
is confined largely to the northern half of the state. About 47 per cent, 
of the people are engaged in agriculture, 14 per cent, in manufacture, 2 per 
cent, in mining, and 16 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



1 82 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

in secondary schools, as suggested elsewhere, showed a much 
greater inclination for the preceding five years; from 1897 to 
1902 it shows but a very slight inclination from the horizontal, 
and then rises more rapidly for the remainder of the period. 
The curve of relative high school enrollment in cities shows an 
actual decline for the first five years and then rises slightly for 
the remaining four years. The curve of relative high school 
enrollment in rural communities shows a very regular rise for 
the whole period, and the curve of relative enrollment for schools 



Plate XVIHVHSSOURl , 

.Showing no. cf high qni secondary -school 
pupils to etch ioo of cenauj - J> to >Q 



N0.RI/RALHI6H3CHOOIS |9(j6 _ 332 



1697-172 



---.«. TOTAL SEG.PUPILS 

— . I.J..IW Schools not H.p'' 



•JN RURAL K.5. 
1H<ATi H.S.— 



1897 98 39 00 01 02 03 04 05 



other than high schools shows a slight decline. The number of 
high schools has increased very rapidly, but their relative effi- 
ciency has apparently declined. Taking all these facts into con- 
sideration and the added fact that the present status is very 
low, it would seem that the rural high schools of the state are 
yet in the first stage of evolution, namely, that of increasing the 
gross number of schools, with an increasing tendency to pass 
into the second stage or that of increasing the relative en- 
rollment. 16 



"Outside of the regions of Kansas City and St. Louis, practically the 
total area of Missouri has a population of from 18 to 45 inhabitants per 
square mile. The foreign born and negro population of the state taken 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 183 

Texas: The absolute increase in the number of rural high 
schools was for the nine year period 119. These schools in- 
creased from 166 to 285, or 71 per cent. While the average 
number of teachers per school increased from 2.5 to 2.9 the 
first year, it decreased the next year to 2.2 where it remained 
until 1904, where there was an increase of one teacher per year. 
The average number of teachers seems, then, to have decreased 
4 per cent, for the period. The relative number of one teacher 




1897 9S 93 00 01 0£ 03 94 05 



high schools has increased from 18 to 30 per cent, of the whole, 
and the relative number of two teacher high schools has increased 
from 41 to 49 per cent, of the remainder. 

The census figures for both cities and rural communities seem 
to be somewhat unreliable, so that the following statement cannot 
be taken without modification. 

The increase in census was, for cities 24 per cent., and for 
rural communities 11 per cent. The absolute increase in enroll- 



together does not much exceed 12 per cent. The most of this element 
is to be found in and about the cities. About 41 per cent, of the 
people are engaged in agriculture, 16 per cent, in manufacture, 2 per cent, 
in mining, and 18 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



184 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

ment in secondary schools was 64 per cent. ; and the absolute 
increase in the number of high school pupils was, for cities 153 
per cent., and for rural communities 87 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils was 
45 per cent. ; and the relative increase in the number of high 
school pupils was, for cities 104 per cent., and for rural commu- 
nities 67 per cent. ; while the relative decrease in the number 
of secondary, other than high school pupils, was 12 per cent. 

Little may be said about the condition of secondary education 
in this state, except that it is in the first stages of evolution, as is 
evidenced by the fact that the relative high school enrollment in 
cities has increased very greatly, while such increase in rural 
high schools has been very much slower, though the original 
status of these schools was at the beginning of the period only 
about 36 per cent, as high as that of the city schools. 17 

Kansas: The number of rural high schools in this state has 
increased from 164 to 216, the absolute increase being 52 and 
the relative increase being 31 per cent. The average number 
of teachers employed in these schools has decreased from 2.4 
to 2.2, or 8.3 per cent., while the relative number of one teacher 
high schools has increased from 26 to 42 per cent, of the whole, 
and the relative number of two teacher high schools has de- 
creased from 54 to 51 per cent, of the remainder. 

The census has increased 41 per cent, in cities, and 9.9 per 
cent, in rural communities. The absolute number of secondary 
pupils enrolled in all types of schools has increased 57 per cent. ; 
and the absolute increase in the number of high school pupils 
has been, for cities 139 per cent., and for rural communities 
57 per cent. 

The relative increase in the number of secondary pupils in 
the state for the period has been 38 per cent. ; and the relative 
increase in the number of pupils enrolled in high schools has 



"The western half of Texas has a population of less than 2 inhabitants 
per square mile, while about one-fourth of the total area has a population 
of from 2 to 18 inhabitants per square mile, and the remaining fourth, 
excluding two small areas which are more densely settled, has a population of 
from 18 to 45 inhabitants per square mile. Twenty per cent, of the total 
population is colored, and a little more than 6 per cent, is of foreign birth. 
Sixty-two per cent of the people are engaged in agriculture, 8 per cent, in 
manufacture, and 11 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 185 

been, for cities 69 per cent., and for rural communities 43 per 
cent. ; while the relative number of pupils, other than high school 
has decreased 5 per cent. 

As explained elsewhere in this chapter the great deflection in 
the curve of relative high school enrollment in cities for the year 
1899 is due to a probable error in the census for that year. 
Figures are given in a note, connected with the statistical table 
for the state, showing that the relative increase in the number 



8 
7 
6 
5 

4 
3 
2 

I 














--.-JPiateXJX- KANSAS- 

5howina no. of It) eh and .secondary schoo\ 
£i»pilS , toesch 100 of-cenius— 5 To i,Sj 






. 








k 






/ 








/ 
/ 


V 

\ 
\ 


/ 





/ 
/ 










/ 

/ 
/ 


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N 



















..— — 


,„«-» 


***•„., 


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** 








... , NO. 


2yRALH 


I6H SCHO 


US 








- — Isc 












SAL M.S. 






.., ~w 
















— • — ♦— - »* SCHOOLS NOT H.S. 














"V 










1897 39 99 00 01 02 03 04- 05 



of secondary pupils was for the preceding six years much more 
rapid. It appears from these figures that the relative increase 
for the last three of the preceding years was much greater than 
for the nine years under consideration, the increase for the three 
years being 47 per cent., and for the nine years 38 per cent. 
This rapid increase continued with a gradual falling off, up to 
the year 1901, when it became much slower. It appears from 
the accompanying curves that both the rural and city high schools 
contributed to this period of comparatively rapid increase. Taken 



1 86 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

as a whole the curve of relative increase of enrollment in cities 
shows a remarkable development for the period. The condition 
of high schools outside of such cities is, however, such as to 
bring the general status of secondary schools in the state down to 
rather a relatively low stage. In 1906 the status of secondary 
education in cities was 2.16 times as high as in rural commu- 
nities. The growth in the number of high schools shows a ten- 
dency to increase the spread of secondary education in the state ; 
but the slow increase in enrollment, and the decrease in relative 
efficiency in the rural high schools show that the movement has 
not as yet fully reached the second stage of development. 18 

Nebraska : The absolute increase in the number of rural high 
schools in this state was for the nine years 151. The relative 
increase calculated upon 214, the real number of such schools, 
was 70 per cent. 19 The average number of teachers to the rural 
high school decreased from 1.9 to 1.8, or 5 per cent. At the 
same time the relative number of one teacher high schools in- 
creased from 42 to 57 per cent, of the whole, and the relative 
number of two teacher high schools decreased from 60 to 48 
per cent, of the remainder, while the relative number of one and 
two teacher high schools taken together remained the same, 
yy per cent. 

The census for cities decreased 8 per cent, and that for rural 
communities 4.9 per cent. The absolute increase in the number 
of secondary pupils enrolled in all types of schools was 63 per 
cent. ; and the absolute increase in the number of high school 
pupils was, for cities 51 per cent., and for rural communities 
48 per cent. 

The relative increase in the enrollment of secondary pupils in 
the state was 73 per cent. ; and the relative increase in the num- 
ber of high" school pupils was, for cities 65 per cent., and for 



18 About 30 per cent, of the area of Kansas has less than 6 inhabitants 
per square mile, about 26 per cent, from 6 to 18, about 38 per cent, from 
18 to 45, and about 6 per cent, more than 45. But a little more than 12 
per cent, of the population is of foreign birth or colored. This element 
is well distributed through the native white population. Fifty-three per 
cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture, 12 per cent, in manufacture, 
2 per cent, in mining, and 14 per cent, in trade and transportation. 

"The number listed in the statistical table for 1897 is 210, but at least 
four of the city high schools reverted to the rural column before the end 
of the period. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 187 

rural communities 56 per cent. ; while the relative increase in the 
number of secondary, other than high school pupils, was 161 per 
cent. 

A glance at the plate of curves and the statistical table for this 
state will disclose a number of irregularities. In 1900, seven of 
the schools previously listed as city schools passed over into the 
rural high school column. This was due to the fact that the 
cities maintaining them did not have the requisite population to 




1897 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 



entitle them to remain in the class. This of course accounts for 
the great falling off of city high school enrollment for the year, 
and the consequent increase of that of rural high schools. The 
low status of relative enrollment in city high schools for 1897 
is due to the reported enrollment in the schools for that year. 
The sudden dropping of the curve of relative enrollment for 
these schools in 1906 is due to a large reported increase in the 
census in cities, which in turn caused a large decrease in the census 
for rural districts. The drop in all of the curves for the year 
1899 is also due to a large increase in reported census. From the 



1 88 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

general appearance of the statistical table it seems probable that 
all these fluctuations are due to errors in these statistics. Assum- 
ing that this is the case, the curves could be corrected by ignoring 
these questionable points and giving the lines the general slopes 
as defined by the remaining portions. 

If the above corrections were made, it would be seen that the 
slopes of the two curves, representing relative high school enroll- 
ment, would be much the same, thus showing a much greater 
relative increase in the enrollment in rural districts. 

To sum up, the spread of rural high schools in this state, as 
measured by absolute numbers, has been very great ; their relative 
efficiency, as measured by the number of teachers employed, has 
slightly decreased, and their relative enrollment has increased 
very greatly. As early as 1895 an act was passed which made 
all district high schools located in any given county free to the 
properly qualified pupils resident in that county. The tuition was 
to be provided for by the county boards of education. This act 
and its later modifications have no doubt influenced very much 
the development of rural high schools in the state. The general 
slope of the curve representing total secondary school enrollment 
has practically remained the same since 1891. In view then, of 
the fact that the state is very young in its development, it appears 
that the present status of secondary education is relatively quite 
high, and that the accumulated momentum in its development 
will probably carry this status much higher in the years to come. 20 

Rhode Island : A glance at the statistical table for this state 
will show that the figures for rural communities are such as to 
bar the possibility of generalizing upon them. 

Taken as a whole there has been in the nine years a remarkable 
development of secondary education in the twenty states under 
consideration. As may be seen by a reference to the table of 
summaries to follow, 2 of them have increased their relative 
enrollment of secondary pupils in all types of schools more than 



20 Fully half of the area of Nebraska has less than 6 inhabitants per 
square mile. About one-fourth has from 6 to 18, and the remainder 45 
to 90. A little more than 17 per cent, of the population is foreign born 
or colored. This element is well distributed through the native population. 
Fifty per cent, of the people are engaged in agriculture, 13 per cent, in 
manufacture, and 16 per cent, in trade and transportation. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 189 

100 per cent., 3 more than 50 per cent., 6 more than 35 per cent., 
and 5 more than 30 per cent. ; while the average relative increase 
in enrollment for the 20 has been more than 42 per cent. One 
state, Texas, has increased its relative enrollment of high school 
pupils in cities more than 104 per cent., 7 others more than 40 
per cent., 4 more than 35 per cent., 3 more than 25 per cent., and 
one has decreased its relative enrollment 9 per cent. ; while the 
average relative increase in enrollment in these schools for the 
20 states has been 46 per cent. Four of them have increased 
their relative enrollments of high school pupils in rural com- 
munities more than 100 per cent., 8 more than 50 per cent., 2 
more than 35 per cent., and 3 more than 25 per cent. ; while the 
average relative increase in enrollment in these schools for the 
20 states has been 65 per cent. Eight of the twenty states have 
increased their relative enrollments of secondary pupils in schools 
other than high schools, and the same number has decreased 
such enrollments. 

One of these states, Washington, has increased the number of 
its rural high schools more than 206 per cent., 6 of them more 
than 50 per cent., 5 more than 35 per cent., and 3 more than 31 
per cent. ; while the average increase in the number of such 
schools in the 20 states has been 50 per cent. 

As to the teaching staff, California has increased the average 
number of teachers employed to the school, in rural high schools, 
more than 71 per cent. ; 3 other states have increased their aver- 
ages more than 35 per cent., 6 more than 22 per cent., 2 more 
than 10 per cent., 4 less than 10 per cent., and 4 have decreased 
their averages, ranging from 4 to 12 per cent.; while the aver- 
age increase for the 20 states has been more than 19 per cent. 
Five of eleven states have decreased their relative proportions 
of one teacher high schools more than 75 per cent., 3 more than 
25 per cent., and 3 less than 25 per cent. ; while 4 of the remain- 
ing nine have increased their relative proportions of one teacher 
high schools more than 50 per cent., 2 more than 35 per cent., 1 
more than 26 per cent., and 2 less than 12 per cent. The average 
decrease in the relative number of one teacher high schools was 
for the 11 states 52 per cent., and the average increase for the 
remaining 9 states was 38 per cent. ; while the average decrease 
for the 20 states was a little more than 11 per cent. Two of 
sixteen states have decreased their relative proportions of two 



190 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

teacher high schools more than 86 per cent., 2 more than 50 per 
cent., 4 more than 30 per cent., 4 more than 20 per cent., and 4 
less than 19 per cent. ; while one of the remaining four has in- 
creased its relative number of two teacher high schools more than 
60 per cent., one more than 27 per cent., and 2 less than 20 
per cent. The average decrease in the relative number of two 
teacher high schools was, for the 16 states 34 per cent., and the 
average increase for the remaining 4 states was 30 per cent. ; 
while the average decrease for the 20 states was a little more 
than 33 per cent. 

The influence of legislation upon secondary education in the 
various states, where there appeared to be any such definite in- 
fluence, was pointed out in the discussions of the statistics and 
curves for these states. It remains then only to take up and 
compare the relative development of secondary education in such 
states as directly aid high schools with that of those which give 
no such aid. It is to be admitted that such a comparison is very 
difficult, and its results may be very unsatisfactory, because the 
many varying factors, the degrees in which they may exist, and 
their complicated combinations may, and in fact do, render any 
such comparison extremely unreliable, particularly, if it is carried 
out in any great detail. Again the question of cause and effect 
must also enter to vitiate to some degree any too definite conclu- 
sions based upon the result of such a comparison. To be more 
specific, the question may arise as to whether both laws and in- 
creased status in development may not be due to the other and 
more fundamental phenomenon, namely, an awakened and in- 
creasing social consciousness directed toward a higher educational 
development. It would seem most probable, however, that while 
the creation of favorable legislation does rest upon such a phe- 
nomenon, the laws themselves react to increase it, and further 
make possible such a distribution of high schools as will admit 
an increased number to attendance upon them. Bearing these 
things in mind, the aim will be first to present only such facts 
as may appear from an analysis of the table containing the sum- 
maries derived from the preceding statistical presentation for 
the various states. 

The first comparison will be between the six states pro- 
viding state subsidies to high schools and those states which give 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



191 



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192 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 



no state aid to such schools either by direct subsidy or by reim- 
bursing local communities for tuition. These states it will be 
noted, contain all degrees of social and economic evolution result- 
ing from the fact that they represent the youngest as well as 
the oldest of the group. Taken as a whole, they represent a wider 
and more irregular distribution of population and wealth than 
the average for the other and larger group. It will also be well 
to bear in mind the fact that there are but six of these states, 
while there are eleven in the other group. 

It appears then, that while one of the six, Massachusetts, did 
not increase the number of its rural high schools, 3 others of the 
six increased their relative numbers of such schools more than 
80 per cent., while but one of the 1 1 in the other group increased 
its numbers more than 80 per cent., and but 2 more than 70 per 
cent. The average increase for the first group was 68 per cent., 
while that for the second group was 48 per cent. 

Five of the six states increased the average number of teachers 
employed to the school more than 34 per cent., while but one of 
the larger group exceeded this per cent. The average increase 
for the six was 38 per cent., and for the eleven but 6.5 per cent. 
The average number of teachers to the school in 1897 was, for 
the first group 2.4, and for the second group 2.5. Each of the 
six states of the first group decreased the relative number of one 
teacher high schools, while but 3 of the 11 in the second group 
did so. The average decrease for the first group was 63 per cent., 
and for the 3 states 41 per cent., while the average increase for 
the 11 states was 15 per cent., thus making a difference of 78 per 
cent, in favor of the smaller group. The average relative pro- 
portion of one teacher high schools in 1897 was, for the first 
group .25 and for the second group .27. Each of the states of 
the first group also decreased the relative number of two teacher 
high schools, while but 7 of the second group did so. The aver- 
age decrease for the 6 states was 53 per cent., and for the 7 
states 23 per cent., while the average decrease for the entire 
second group was 2 per cent., thus making a difference of 51 per 
cent, in favor of the first group. The average relative propor- 
tion of two teacher high schools in 1897 was, for the first group 
.52 and for the second group .44. 

As to the enrollment of secondary pupils in all types of schools, 
2 of the six states increased their relative enrollments more than 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 193 

100 per cent., while none of the other group reached this and 
but one reached 70 per cent. .The average relative increase of 
enrollment for the first group was 57 per cent., and for the 
second group but 39 per cent. This becomes more significant 
when we consider the fact that the average status of enrollment 
of the first group at the beginning of the period was 4.44 indi- 
viduals to each 100 of census, 5-18, while that of the second 
group was but 3.68 individuals to each 100 of census. 

Three of the 6 states increased their relative enrollments in 
city high schools more than 50 per cent., while 5 of the 11 in- 
creased theirs more than 50 per cent. The average increase in 
relative enrollment in these schools was, for the first group 52 
per cent., and for the second group 49 per cent., while the aver- 
age number of pupils enrolled to each 100 of census, 5-18, was 
for the first group 4.81, and for the second group 4.13. 

The greatest difference appears, however, when the relative 
enrollments in rural high schools in the two groups are compared. 
Two of the six states increased their relative enrollments in rural 
high schools more than 152 per cent., and 2 others more than 
100 per cent., while but 2 in the other group increased their rela- 
tive enrollments more than 73 per cent., and but 2 others more 
than 67 per cent. The average increase in relative enrollment 
in these schools exceeded for the first group 100 per cent., and 
for the second group but 49 per cent., while the average number 
of pupils enrolled to each 100 of census at the beginning of the 
period was, for the first group 2.85, and for the second group 2.49. 

Two of the states in the first group, Massachusetts and Maine, 
compel such towns as do not maintain high schools to pay the 
tuitions of all of their high school pupils in secondary schools 
located within or without such towns. Provision is made for 
the reimbursement by the state of the poorer of such towns. The 
state high schools in Minnesota are free to any and all qualified 
secondary pupils from districts not maintaining high schools 
of their own. In California and Washington the high schools are 
also practically open to all comers. In Wisconsin compulsory 
free tuition is provided for by all communities not maintaining 
high schools. 

Comparing the two states in which compulsory free tuition 
with certain reimbursements is provided, with the eleven which 



194 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

do not provide such reimbursement, 21 it appears that the 
average relative increase in the number of high schools was, 
for the two states 12 per cent., and for the eleven states 48 per 
cent. ; that the average increase in the average number of 
teachers employed to the school was, for the two states 27 per 
cent, upon 2.4 in 1897, for the eleven states 6.5 per cent upon 2.5 
in 1897; that the decrease in the average relative proportion of 
one teacher high schools was for the two states 34 per cent., based 
upon an average relative proportion of .31 in 1897, and for the 
eleven states there was an increase of 15 per cent., based upon 
an average relative proportion of .27 in 1897, thus producing 
a difference of 49 per cent, in favor of the first group ; that 
the decrease in the average relative proportion of two teacher 
high schools was for the two states 22 per cent., based upon 
an average relative proportion of .45 in 1897, and for the eleven 
states 2 per cent, based upon an average relative proportion of 
.44 in 1897. 

The average relative increase in enrollment of secondary pupils 
in all types of schools was, for the two states 27 per cent., based 
upon an original status of an average of 5.40 pupils to each 
100 of census, and for the eleven states 39 per cent., based upon 
a status of an average of 3.68 pupils to each 100 of census. The 
average relative increase in the enrollment in city high schools 
was for the two states 15 per cent., based upon an original 
status of an average of 4.51 pupils to each 100 of census, and 
for the eleven states 49 per cent., based upon a status of 4.13 
pupils to each 100 of census. The average relative increase of 
pupils enrolled in rural high schools was, for the two states 57 
per cent., based upon an original status of 2.79 pupils to each 
100 of census, and for the eleven states 49 per cent., based upon 
a status of 2.49 pupils to each 100 of census. 

Since then, the states providing aid to high schools and free 
tuition to all comers appear, as a group, to have no special advan- 
tages in the matter of social and economic evolution, social 
composition, and the distribution of wealth and population. The 
great difference to be found in the development of secondary 
education in this group and the other must be due either to the 



21 It appears that the reimbursement of tuition did not occur in Vermont 
until after the period under consideration. 



Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 195 

social attitude or to the laws which have been designed to 
equalize such educational opportunities. A reference to Plate 
XXI will disclose the fact that the relative status of education 
in these two groups at the beginning of the period did not 
greatly differ, and that there was relatively much less difference 
in the average status of rural than of city high school enroll- 
ment. The slight spreading of the lines representing average 
city high school enrollment is not due to any great difference in 
relative increase, but to the original difference of status. On the 



481 

444 ••'^ 



KSfcXXI-AVEftAGE RELATIVE INCREASE 



r jgjgr 



JtfSf--' 



&&£. 



^5>^r^;;' c^- 








fl COMPARISON BETWEEN GROUP I.TKE 

SIX STATES THAT PROVIDE A SUBSlDY.TO 
-HT&H SCHO0L5,AND &ROtfPlI.THE£LEVfN 
-STAjES THAT PROVIDE NO 50CB AID 



1897 



7-31 

6-15 
535 
5-11 



37! 



JS06 



other hand the wide divergence of the lines representing average 
rural high school enrollment is mostly due to a large difference of 
increase in the average relative enrollment in the two groups. 
Taking into consideration, then, the facts of the case, which are 
that the original status did not vary greatly, and that such 
differences as did appear were doubtless due to the previous 
favorable legal conditions in these states, that there was but a 
slight difference in the average increase of enrollment in city 
high schools, and that the average relative increase in enrollment 
in rural high schools in the group of subsidy states far exceeded 
that of the other group, it would seem that the tremendous 



196 Some High School Statistics and Their Probable Meaning 

development of rural secondary education in these states is due 
very largely to the influence of legislation, in a measure equal- 
izing the economic burdens of such education, and to a consider- 
able extent directly and indirectly reacting in such a manner as 
to increase tremendously a favorable public sentiment toward it. 
The state subsidy plan of aid coupled with compulsory and 
partially reimbursed free tuition seems, upon the whole, to affect 
favorably the spread of high schools, and the efficiency of 
instruction and the enrollment in them. Reimbursed tuition 
without a state subsidy seems to have little favorable influence 
upon the spread of rural high schools, if indeed it does not hinder 
such spread. Compulsory and reimbursed free tuition tends 
to increase both attendance and enrollment in such schools. It ap- 
pears that where a large direct state subsidy is paid, the tendency 
to increase the number of high schools at the expense of their 
quality is checked by certain standards of efficiency set by the 
state administrative authorities. Higher standards of efficiency 
are also set where the state reimburses tuition payments. These 
facts account for the wide distribution of so-called high schools 
in a large number of the Central States, with the evident ten- 
dency toward relative decreased efficiency in them. The great 
increase in enrollment in rural high schools in these states is 
due largely to the great spread of such schools. A certain 
amount of state aid in the form of a state subsidy together with 
compulsory and reimbursed tuition applied in proper proportions 
would tend to increase their efficiency tremendously. In short 
it appears from the above statistical study that direct state aid, 
when coupled with proper legal requirements, produces efficiency 
and opportunity, and relatively decreases the spread of high 
schools of an inferior quality. 



CHAPTER XIII 

STATE AID BY GRANTING SUBSIDIES AND BY 
REIMBURSING TUITIONS 

A DISCUSSION OF THE WORKINGS OF THE LAWS PROVIDED IN AID 
OF RURAL SECONDARY EDUCATION IN MASSA- 
CHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT 

It was the intention to measure the results of the practical 
workings of all of the different types of legislation which pro- 
vided state aid to rural secondary education. However, the 
necessary statistics could not be secured in sufficient detail in 
any of the states excepting Massachusetts and Connecticut. This 
chapter will be confined, then, to the presentation, analysis and 
discussion of certain statistics for secondary education in these 
states. These figures are presented for the purpose of estab- 
lishing certain facts relative to, (i) the workings of the direct 
state subsidy plan of aid in conjunction with that of reimbursed 
tuition; (2) the reimbursed tuition plan of aid in conjunction 
with the entire local support of high schools. 

It will be necessary to note at this point that the purpose of 
this presentation is neither to discuss the merits of the policy 
of state aid to rural secondary education nor to present the 
advantages or disadvantages of the two methods of extending 
such aid, but rather to point out certain failures in practice 
due to the faulty applications of the general principles involved. 
Further, the interest here is not in the special problems relating 
to the subject in the states under discussion, but rather in the 
general theories as they have worked out in practice in these 
states. 

The first of these discussions will concern itself with the con- 
sideration of the problem of the workings of the direct state 
subsidy plan of aid in conjunction with that of reimbursed tuition 
as illustrated by certain statistics relating to rural secondary 
education in the state of Massachusetts. The main problem will 
be to arrange the statistics, describe and interpret them in such 
a manner as to show that the method of providing state aid 
to secondary education in this state does not work equitably, 



jq8 State Aid by Granting Subsidies 

and thus does not, upon the whole, produce the results that 
might be obtained by a more equitable distribution of the funds 
provided for the purpose. 

The act providing state aid for secondary education in the 
poorer towns is in effect as follows: (i) all towns with more 
than 500 families must maintain high schools; (2) towns with 
less than 500 families may maintain high schools, and in case 
they do, they may receive a bonus of $500 annually from the 
state; (3) all towns not maintaining high schools of their own 
must provide free tuition for all of their qualified secondary 
pupils in attendance upon neighboring high schools; (4) such 
of these latter towns as have an assessed valuation of less than 
$750,000 may receive from the state an amount equal to the 
whole of that expended for such tuition; and such as have an 
assessed valuation of $750,000 or more may receive one-half the 
whole amount so expended. It is provided, however, that no 
town, the valuation of which averages a larger sum for each 
pupil in average membership in its public schools than the corre- 
sponding average for the commonwealth, shall receive any 
moneys from the commonwealth under the provisions of the act. 

A glance at the two pages of statistics presented herewith will 
be sufficient to convince the reader that the scheme of aiding 
rural secondary education in Massachusetts does not work with 
equity in the two classes of poorer towns under consideration; 
and that as a result of this the present law places the towns 
supporting high schools of their own at a disadvantage, in so 
far as state aid is concerned. On the other hand these towns 
have all of the advantages attendant upon having a high school 
located within their borders. Some of these advantages are: 
(1) a local high school will provide a secondary education to 
a much larger number of the youth of the town; 1 (2) such 
state funds as may be applied to the purpose will remain in 
the town; (3) pupils will be saved the extra expense of travel, 
and in some instances of boarding and lodging; (4) the time 
of pupils before and after school may be utilized with advan- 
tage by parents; (5) the pupils will be nearer home and more 
largely under its influence; (6) the existence of a local high 
school will attract home makers and thus prove of economic 



l Rep't of State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 222-4. 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 199 

advantage. In addition to all of these, local pride may exert 
a powerful influence in leading to the establishment and mainte- 
nance of such schools. It is to be feared, however, that the fact 
that the state will give, free of expense to the local community, 
an equal, if not a superior education to all who can manage to 
provide the transportation, will overbalance all of the above 
advantages. In this case many of the towns that should be 
maintaining high schools of their own will continue to require 
their youth to leave the home town in order to secure educa- 
tional advantages. 

Taking up in detail the analysis and discussion of these sta- 
tistics, it will be found that Table I shows that the number of 
pupils in attendance upon the high schools in the various towns 
bears but a slight relation to the wealth of such towns; that 
after subtracting from the current expenses the $500 received 
from the state, the remaining amounts to be raised by the various 
towns bear only a slight relation to the assessed valuations; 
that the per capita cost of secondary education is only slightly 
less in the poorer towns; that the state pays only a little more 
per capita for the education of pupils in the poorer towns; but, 
that the percentage of per capita cost paid by the state is, upon 
the whole, considerably larger in these towns. It will be noticed, 
however, that if each of these towns were compelled to raise 
all the necessary local funds by taxation, the poorer towns would, 
in general, be compelled to tax themselves approximately twice 
as heavily as the richer ones. Some of the funds are, however, 
raised by tuition fees, but in all probability the richer towns 
receive more in proportion upon this account than the poorer 
ones, since they would generally give better educational facili- 
ties, and since their larger tuition charges would be met by the 
state. A few of these towns also have endowments which 
decrease the local rates for this purpose. 2 The towns compos- 
ing the latter class could not be determined, but there is no more 
reason for supposing that they belong to the poorer than to the 
richer class. A reference to the table on page 21, will show 
that a still greater difference must exist in the rates for the 
maintenance of the elementary schools in these towns. In view 
of this latter fact, it will be evident that any given rate for 



! Rep't of State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 221 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 



TABLE I 

Statistics of the Forty Massachusetts Towns That Received a Direct 
Subsidy of $500 Each in 1907 



"s ™ 

ex. 



M 









- - - c 



8 SIIS 



K 



^3 

.as 

Z 



New Salem . . . 
Bernhardston . 

Bolton 

Granby 

Ashby 

Huntington.. . 

Ashfield 

Orleans 

Men don 

Chester 

Conway 

Plain ville 

Petersham. . . . 

Rutland 

West Bovlston 
Millis ....... 

Norwell 

Edgartown . . 

Stowe 

Avon 

Sheffield 

Sandwich. . . . 
Littleton .... 
Shelbourne . . 
Lunenburg. . , 
West Newbury 
Wrentham. . . . 

Ashland 

Essex 

Hadley 

Northfield 

Sudbury 

Wilmington. .. 

Charlton 

Northborough 

Tisbury 

Shrewsbury. . . 
Southborough 

Medfield 

Sharon 

Averages. 



$321. 
414, 
489, 
486, 
490, 
S83, 
588, 
599, 
624, 
658, 
663, 
689, 
701, 
717, 
728, 
741, 
827 
850 
856 
909 
928 
908 
997 

1,014 

I ,022 
1,030 
I , 041 
I.05S 
I ,062 
I. 155 



I.203 
I. 23 2 
1,248 
I,2S8 
1.344, 
1,420 
1.425 
1,515 
1,548 
2,351 



40 
31 
40 
27 

3° 

7 

34 
31 

46 
46 

3 5 
28 
57 
45 

35 
3 9 
154 



$1,200.35 
1,645.80 
1,236.40 
1,441-63 
I ,480.96 
2,514 
1,799.10 
1,709.91 
I.647.58 
2,412.78 
1.333-39 
2,415.00 
I , 140.66 
I , 240 . 00 
2,392.37 
I ,410.00 
2,662.84 
I , 648 . 64 
I , 248.40 
I , 663 .00 
1,277.04 
I ,940.00 
2,231.27 
5.207.47 
1,418.51 
I ,940.00 
2.307-58 
2, 500.00 
2,900.00 
2,410.00 
1.307 
1,451 
2,021 .00 
I ,626.46 
2,005.09 
I ,605 .00 
t.778 -" 
3.195-94 
2,066.07 
2 , 580. 00 



$38.72 
54-86 
44.16 
55-45 
70.52 
3182 
66.63 
37.17 
53-15 
60.32 
49-38 
80.50 

162.95 
36.47 
77-17 
30-65 
57 
47-IO 
44-59 
29. 
28.38 
55-43 
57 
33 
2955 
80.83 
82.41 
51.02 

40. 2f 
56.05 
35-06 
63.09 
35-46 
47.84 
43-39 

51.73 

58. 

69. 

64.56 
50.59 



«3 


41. 


07 


30. 


SO 


40. 


2.1 


34- 


81 


33- 


33 


19. 


Sa 


27- 


87 


29. 


13 


30. 


50 


20. 


52 


37- 


.67 


20. 


•43 


43- 


■7i 


40. 


■ 13 


20. 


.87 
.87 


II: 


.29 


30. 


.80 


40. 


■ 77 


30. 


. 1 1 


39- 


-20 


25- 


.82 


22. 


■25 


09. 


42 


35- 


.83 


25- 


.80 


21 . 


. 20 


20. 


04 


17 


.63 


20 


.82 


36 


-74 


34 


-77 


24 


- 71 


30 


.87 


24 


23 


31 


.23 


28 


.87 


15 


-0, 


24 


.80 


19 



$700.35 

1, 145 .80 
736.40 
941.63 
980. 96 

2 , OI4.OO 
I , 299. IO 
I , 209.91 
I.I47-58 
I ,912 . 78 
833 -39 
I ,915 .OO 

640 . 66 

740.00 
1,892.37 

910.00 
2,162.84 
1,148.64 

748.40 
1. 163 

777-04 
1 ,440.00 
I.73I-27 
4.707-47 

918.51 
1 , 440 . 00 
1,807.58 
2,000.00 
2 ,400. 00 
1 ,910 

867.44 

95108 
1.521 
1 , 126.46 
1.505.09 
1. 105 
1,278.86 
2,695.94 
1 , 566.07 
2 .080.00 



$942,841 40.4 $1,951-79 $48.28 $12.37 



25.6 $1,451-79 x.6 



Statistics of Massachusetts Towns of Less Than Five Hundred Families, 
Which Supported High Schools. 1903-7 



Year 


Number 

of 

towns 


Total 

amount 

of 

State 

grant 


State 
grant 

to 
each 
school 


Number 
of pupils 
enrolled 


Average 

cost 
to State 
per pupil 
enrolled 




26 
34 
36 
37 
40 


$8,400.00 
10, 200.00 
10, 800.00 
11 , 100.00 
20 ,000.00 


$300 
300 
300 
300 
500 


917 
1,117 
1.338 
i.37a 
1,617 


$916 




8.67 






8.09 
13.36 







State Aid by Granting Subsidies 



TABLE II 

Statistics op Twenty-one Massachusetts Towns Which Received at Least 

Five Hundred Dollars Each Upon Account op Reimbursed Tuitions 

in 1907 



Towns 


3 
PS 

p 

< 


«•» 

'ft 
Sum 

Wo 

«{l 

-oS 
55 


■go ^-2 


"0 u-w 

£* 3 

Is §5 
<5 


«0 3f 
ft^'d ca 

<o a- £> 

«-s. •' d 
< 


S> to * 

«££ 

S'S.^2 

a. 


West Stockbridge 


$382,541 

388,27s 

433. °57 
465,667 
480, 270 
491,577 
537,915 
625 ,980 
634, 220 
639.927 
642,15s 
660,920 
669, 769 
699,321 
734,590 
734.693 
740,136 
873,512 
985,246 
1,205,093 
1,254.659 


11 
16 
12 

20 
18 

9 

24 
31 
13 
16 
21 
15 
38 
41 
19 

27 
20 
30 
24 
46 


18 
27 
20 
33 
30 
IS 
40 
51 
22 
27 
35 

25 

oi 
32 
35 
45 
33 
50 
40 
77 


$576.00 

528.00 

55S.oo 

1,041.50 

599-50 

500.00 

838.00 

1,037.25 

625.00 

792 .00 

1,560.00 

1,061 .80 

1,506.67 

1,452.00 

835-00 

843-00 

910.00 

574-45 

840.00 

697-50 

1,080.00 


$52.36 
33-00 
46.25 
52.07 
3330 

55-55 
34-91 
33-45 
48.07 
49.50 
74.28 
70.78 
39-64 
35-41 
43-94 
40.14 
33-70 
28.72 
28.00 
29.06 
23-47 


100 


Whately 
















Berlin 
















East Longmeadow. . . . 




North Reading 




































Averages 


$679,973 


22.5 


37.4 


$878.69 


$4«.i7 





*Chap. XIV. 

TABLE IV 
Statistics of Massachusetts Towns Reimbursed 
1903-7 



State for Tuition Paid, 



Year 


Number 

of 
towns 


Total 

State 

expenditure 

for 

purpose 


Average 

amount 

received 

by 

towns 


Number 
of pupils 
for which 
State paid 
tuition 


Average 

cost 
to State 
per pupil 
enrolled 




97 
103 
106 
100 

97 


$31,888.00 
35,402.84 
38,071.95 
36,196.67 
36,613.94 


$328.74 
343-71 
359-i6 
361.96 
377-46 


966 
1,099 
1. 194 

1,077 
1,061 












1906 

1907 


41.06 
42.07 



the support of secondary education will be more difficult to 
meet in the poorer than in the richer towns. 

In view of the evidence presented, it seems to be clear, then, 
that while the present law granting a direct subsidy of $500 
to all towns maintaining high schools of a certain standard, has 
worked to equalize partially the burdens attendant upon the sup- 
port of high schools by the various towns, it has by no means 
solved the problem. 



202 State Aid by Granting Subsidies 

The other method of state support practiced in Massachusetts, 
namely, that of reimbursing the towns for tuition expended, has 
completely raised the burden of providing for secondary educa- 
tion from the shoulders of the poorer towns, but it has not 
brought the secondary educational opportunities to the home 
community. In fact, it has probably worked in some cases to 
hinder such opportunity from being created in certain towns. 
Thus it has been instrumental in hindering some individuals 
from securing a secondary education. At the same time it has 
secured educational opportunities to many more. 

A glance at Table II will show that, of the towns with an 
assessed valuation of not to exceed $750,000, no greater effort 
is required of the rich than of the poor, and that the amounts 
received per capita for tuition paid by these towns have ranged 
from $30.00 to $74.28. This opens up the main question under 
consideration: Does the present method of combining a direct 
state subsidy to high schools in the poorer towns, together with 
the reimbursement of tuition paid by the poorer towns, work 
equitably and efficiently in the state of Massachusetts? 

A comparison of the averages to be found in Tables I and II 
will show that while the state contributed but $500 to each of 
the forty towns maintaining high schools, it contributed an 
average of $878.69 to each of twenty-one towns that did not 
support high schools. The state aid to the latter towns ranged 
from $500 to $1,560 each. The average per capita cost of sec- 
ondary education in the forty towns that supported high schools 
was $48.28, of which amount the state paid $12.37, or 25.6 per 
cent. The average per capita amount paid by the state for sec- 
ondary education in the twenty-one towns that did not maintain 
high schools was $42.17, or nearly three and a half times the 
average per capita amount contributed to the larger group of 
towns. 

Sixteen of the forty towns which received the direct bonus of 
$500 had an assessed valuation of less than $750,000, or an 
average of $593,680; while there were seventeen towns of the 
state with an assessed valuation of less than $750,000, or an 
average of $585,937, which received amounts ranging from $500 
to $1,560, or an average of $897.68 each upon the account of 
reimbursed tuition. The gross number of pupils enrolled in the 
high schools of the sixteen towns was 534, while the gross num- 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 203 

ber of secondary pupils in the seventeen towns was but 352. 
Thus it will appear that the state contributed $8,000 toward the 
education of 534 pupils in the first group of towns, while it con- 
tributed $15,260.54 toward the education of 352 pupils in the 
second group. Reducing to the basis of the individual pupil, 
we find that the state contributed an average of but $14.98 per 
capita toward the education of the secondary pupils in the group 
of towns that supported high schools of their own, and an 
average of $43.35 per capita for the same purpose to the towns 
that made no effort upon their own part. It seems, then, that 
the state contributed an average of three times as much per 
capita for the education of the youth in the seventeen towns 
that made no effort upon their own part, as it did for those 
of the sixteen towns that maintained high schools of their own, 
although the assessed valuation of the towns in the two groups 
was practically equal. The fact that a certain number of the 
pupils in the high schools of the former group of towns are 
tuition pupils, will affect the above proportions somewhat; but 
the number of such pupils is not large enough to materially change 
these proportions. 

Judging, then, from the figures at hand, it would appear that, 
from a financial standpoint, the towns of the second group are, 
upon the whole, as able to support high schools as those of the 
first. And, if the amounts contributed to these towns by the 
state were permitted to remain the same, these towns would be 
able to do so with greater ease. A glance at the third column 
of figures in Table II will show that most, if not all, of these 
towns would, if they had local high schools, have a sufficient 
attendance to warrant their existence. 

While the above analysis and discussion has resulted in estab- 
lishing the original contention, namely, that the direct subsidy 
and reimbursed tuition schemes, as practiced in Massachusetts, 
do not work with equity, and consequently do not produce the 
best possible results, the degree of the inequality and ineffective- 
ness of the combination can be shown best by comparing smaller 
groups and individual towns. 

Seven of the twenty-one towns listed on Table II received 
more than $1,000 each from the state, or more than twice the 
amount received by any town supporting a high school of its 



204 State Aid by Granting Subsidies 

own. The average evaluation of these seven towns was $716,924, 
or an amount which exceeded the evaluation of any one of thir- 
teen of the towns on the other list. One of the seven had an 
evaluation of $1,254,659, or an amount which exceeded the 
evaluation of any one of thirty-three of the forty towns sup- 
porting high schools. 

There were three towns receiving from the state, on account 
of reimbursed tuition, amounts equal to or exceeding $1,452, 
while there were twelve towns of the other group which ex- 
pended less than this amount annually for the current expenses 
of their high schools. These three towns had an average of 33 
tuition pupils each, while the twelve towns had an average 
enrollment of 32 pupils each in their local high schools. Thus 
it is evident that these three towns could have entirely supported 
local high schools of a standard equal to that required by the 
state board, upon the money received from the state alone. 

When the fact that the evaluation for the poorest of these 
three towns is greater than that of nine of the group that sup- 
port high schools is taken into consideration, it will be evident 
that, other things being equal, these towns should, with state 
aid, be supporting high schools of their own. If this were the 
case the number of high school pupils in these towns would, 
in all probability, be from 60 to 75 per cent greater than at 
present. 3 Thus the average enrollment for each of the three 
towns would be likely to exceed 55 pupils. In case these towns 
were to tax themselves one and two-thirds mills upon the dollar, 
the average tax rate necessary to raise the local funds in the 
forty towns, they could raise an average of $1,117 to the town, 
which would be more than ample to take care of the additional 
pupils that would materialize in case they maintained local high 
schools. 

It will be noticed that three towns of the group receive from 
the state but half of the amounts expended for tuition. The 
total expenditures for secondary education in these towns were 
$1,395, $1,680, and $2,160, — enough in any case to have main- 
tained a high school. 

Tables III and IV show that the situation described above has 
existed for some years. In fact, the inequalities produced by 



3 Rep't of the State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 222-4. 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 205 

the system were much greater previous to 1907 when the amount 
of the state subsidy was only $300. 

It seems that the number of towns maintaining high schools 
and receiving the state grant has increased from 26 to 40 in the 
four years. This does not mean, however, that all of the new 
towns on the list previously received state aid through reim- 
bursed tuitions. In all probability, few if any of them did, 
since a high school to receive the state subsidy must employ 
two teachers and give a four years' course. The direct trans- 
ference from the reimbursed tuition group to the direct subsidy 
group would then imply the immediate creation of a complete 
high school. There were at the time, 1907, ten town high 
schools in the state that could not meet the requirements of 
the state board. 4 None of the towns supporting these schools 
received any aid from the state upon either account. 

It will also be noticed that the number of towns receiving 
aid on account of reimbursed tuition has neither increased nor 
decreased during the four years. Twenty of these towns, having 
an assessed valuation of more than $750,000 each, received but 
half of the amounts expended for tuition. 

While it has been demonstrated elsewhere in this study that 
state aid has done much in Massachusetts towards extending 
better educational opportunities to the rural youth of the com- 
monwealth, the immediate presentation has established the fol- 
lowing facts relative to the adequacy of the methods of extend- 
ing this aid: — 

First, the particular scheme employed in distributing this aid 
through the combination of the direct subsidy and reimbursed 
tuition plans has not worked with equity to the various towns. 

Second, this fact has probably worked to discourage certain 
towns from establishing and maintaining high schools of their 
own. 

Third, the direct subsidy plan has tended to equalize the bur- 
dens of the various poorer towns supporting high schools, but 
it has done so only to a certain degree. 

Fourth, the tuition scheme employed does not discriminate 
sufficiently between the poorer and the richer towns. 

4 See ante page 66. 



206 State Aid by Granting Subsidies 

Fifth, the state is paying to several towns, on account of 
reimbursed tuition, a sufficient amount to maintain efficient high 
schools in these towns. 

The establishment of these facts gives rise to the question 
as to whether the state desires to encourage the maintenance 
of high schools in the smaller and poorer towns. There can 
be no doubt whatever that, upon the whole, the tuition 
pupils are securing better educational opportunities than the 
pupils attendant upon many of the small local high schools. On 
the other hand, it has been demonstrated that 60 to 75 per cent 
more pupils will attend a local high school. 5 Fortunately, it 
is not necessary to settle this general theoretic question here in 
order to answer it for Massachusetts, since the attitude of the 
state is clearly defined, by the fact that it is already paying 
an annual premium of $500 to many small high schools located 
in very poor towns, and, by the further fact that any one of 
these schools is permitted to receive pupils whose tuition may 
be wholly or partly borne by the state. 

No direct state aid is given to high schools in Connecticut, 
but state aid is provided to secondary education through the 
state reimbursement of tuition and transportation paid by such 
towns as do not maintain high schools of their own. The legal 
provision is about as follows : First, any town not maintaining 
a high school may pay the tuition of its qualified high school 
pupils in attendance upon neighboring high schools, or in attend- 
ance upon an academy located within the town. Second, any 
such town may provide transportation for its pupils of sec- 
ondary grade to and from such high schools. Third, the state 
agrees to reimburse each of these towns for such tuition pay- 
ments, provided that the state will not pay for this purpose 
more than $30 annually upon the account of any one pupil. 
Fourth, the state agrees to reimburse any such town to the 
extent of one-half the amount expended for transportation, pro- 
vided that the state will not pay for this purpose more than $20 
annually upon the account of any one pupil. 

The following statistics are presented to show : ( 1 ) that the 
above law discriminates against such towns as support high 

5 Rep't of State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 222-4. 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 



207 



schools, and thus hinders the establishment of the same; (2) 
that the state is of itself contributing to certain towns amounts 
sufficient to maintain high schools within their borders; and (3) 
that the amounts already expended upon secondary education 
would maintain high schools in many more of these towns. 

The selection of the towns in the second group was made upon 
the basis of the number of pupils enrolled in non-local high 
schools. Each of these towns would, in all probability, furnish 
enough pupils to constitute a real high school were such an 
institution established within its boundaries. In general, any such 
town not having an academy within its borders would produce 
a minimum of thirty-three pupils for a local high school. 6 A 
glance at Table V will show that but six of the high schools 
listed there exceed this number, and if the non-resident pupils 
be subtracted but four do so. 



Statistics of Twenty-one Connecticut High Schools That Expended Less 

Than $1,500 Each for Maintenance During the Academic Year, 

1903-4* 



New Hartford. 
Middlebury. . . 

Somers 

New Haven. . . 
Stonington .... 

Windsor 

South Windsor 
Plymouth .... 
North Canaan 
East Lyme. . . 
Salisbury .... 

Groton 

Plymouth. . . . 
Stonington. . . . 

Orange 

Old Saybrook . 

Madison 

Midford 

Woodbury . . . 
Salisbury .... 
Newtown 

Averages. 



36 

o 



400 
477 
580 
583 
60s 
64s 

73S 

898 

900 

920 

1 ,067 

1,078 

1,082 

1. 177 

1,316 

1,337 

1,483 

1 ,422 

1,470 

1,476 



$946.95 



$16.52 
23-53 
17.68 
41-43 
41.65 
33-6i 
33-05 
61.26 
22.45 
37-50 
30.66 
38.11 
33-71 
49.18 

235-45 
35-57 
60.77 
35.31 
41-83 
25.79 
26.37 

$35-33 



The high schools in the towns printed in italics were approved by the State Board. None 
of these schools occupied separate buildings. 

* Report of State Board of Education, 1905, pp. 164-7. 



"Rep't of State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 222-4. 



208 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 



Statistics of Towns of Connecticut That Sent Twenty or More Pupils Each 
to Non-Local High Schools During the Academic Year 1903-4 (*) 



Towns 


a 

3 
a 



B 

3 

45 


c . 

aw 

he 


111 


21 u c 

111 



CO 

to 13 

gw 

3 
O 
i- 


O 3 

'S 

1 


1 
C B 

Sea 

X 


U 

hi 

co 


oM 

ill 


s5i 

'SoCO 


Berlin 


$2,008.00 


$563.03 


$2,571.03 


$57.13 


$1,236.86 


$281.51 


$1,518.37 


$33-74 


Chatham. . . . 


30 


1,288.42 


961.80 


2,250.22 


75.O0 


858.94 


475-92 


1.334-86 


44-49 


New Canaan. 




1,487.50 


582.95 


2,070.45 


94.11 


626.00 


281.48 


907.48 


41.25 


Plainfield . . . 


3° 


1,212.72 


786.75 


1.999-47 


66.65 


808.50 


39L46 


1,199.96 


39-99 


Hamden .... 


3° 


1,476.60 


478.98 


1,955.58 


65.18 


770.00 


239-54 


1,009.54 


33-65 


Thompson.. . 


3° 


1,216.1s 


609.74 


1,825.89 


60.86 


810.75 


304.89 


1.115-64 


37.19 


East Windsor 


37 


1.331-02 


470.45 


1,801.47 


48.69 


883.20 


235.22 


1,118.42 


30.23 


Darien 


27 


1,170.15 


487.50 


1,657.65 


61.36 


685.42 


246.31 


931.73 


34-51 


Brooklyn.. . . 


24 


1,052.98 


572.05 


1,625.03 


67.71 


720.00 


272.65 


974.65 


40.61 


Fairfield 


26 


1,256.25 


341.55 


I,597.8o 


61.45 


732.00 


170.95 


902.95 


34-73 


Pomfret .... 


21 


898.87 


645.40 


1,544.27 


73-54 


59925 


322.70 


921.95 


4390 


Cromwell 


21 


952.50 


354-IO 


1,306.60 


62.22 


601.57 


I77.05 


778.62 


3 l°l 


Lebanon .... 


20 


615.00 


644.00 


1,259.00 


62.95 


407.60 


322.00 


729.60 


36.48 


Ellington.. . . 


28 


701.00 


321.20 


1,022.20 


36.51 


466.81 


160.60 


627.41 


22.41 


Averages . 


27.92 


$1,190.51 


$558.53 


$1,749.04 


$62.64 


$727.78 


$277.30 


$1,005.08 


$36.00 



(*) Report of State Board of Education, 1905. 

It may appear that a comparison of the high schools and 
towns in these two lists will demonstrate nothing definite for 
the reason that most of these schools are at best only partial 
high schools, and that they are probably also relatively of a 
very low grade. Even though this were admitted, the fact 
remains that nine of the twenty-one were approved by the state 
board, and were consequently permitted to receive tuition pupils, 
whose fees were payable by the state, — in case they came from 
towns not supporting high schools. Again a comparison of the 
statistics for the towns in Table VI with those of Massachu- 
setts, in Table I, would in effect give the same result. 

Referring, then, to Table VI we find that in 1903-4 there 
were fourteen towns in the state sending 20 or more pupils 
each an average distance of 5.8 miles to outside high schools. 
The state contributed to these towns $10,188.90 on account of 
tuition, and $3,882.28 on account of transportation, or a total 
of $14,071.18 on both accounts. This makes an average of 
$727.78 received on the first, and $277.30 received on the second 
account, or a total average of $1,005.08 received by each town 
on both accounts. The total amounts expended in these towns 
on the account of secondary education was, for tuition $16,667.16, 
for transportation $7,819.50, or a total of $24,486.66 for both 



State Aid by Granting Subsidies 209 

purposes. The average expenditure in each of the towns was, 
on the first account $1,190.51, on the second account $558.53, 
or upon the two accounts $1,749.04. This latter item far exceeds 
the greatest amount expended by any one of the towns in 
Table V for the maintenance of its high school. It would be 
more than sufficient to employ two teachers at salaries of $840.50 
each, the average for the high school teachers of the state. 

A comparison with the figures in Table V will show that the 
average amount contributed to these towns by the State exceeds 
the average total cost of maintaining high schools in twenty- 
one towns of the state. A further comparison will also show 
that the state was contributing an average of $36.00 per capita 
towards the education of the secondary pupils in the fourteen 
towns, while the average per capita cost of the secondary edu- 
cation in the twenty-one towns was but $35.33. The total 
average per capita cost of secondary education in the fourteen 
towns was $62.64, while the average for the state was only 
$49.62. It is quite evident, then, that most, if not all, of these 
towns would maintain high schools of their own, if they were 
furnishing these funds themselves. 

Six of the fourteen towns were sending thirty or more pupils 
each an average distance of 6.5 miles to non-local high schools. 
They received from the state on the average $894.71 on account 
of tuition, and $321.42 on account of transportation, or $1,216.13 
on the two accounts. Each of thirteen of the high schools listed 
above expended less than this amount for all current expenses. 
The average expenditures for secondary education in the six 
towns were $1,422.15 on account of tuition, and $645.12 on 
account of transportation, or $2,067.28 on both accounts. The 
latter amount would have been sufficient to employ two competent 
teachers, and still there would have been $386.20 left for other 
expenses. 

The town of Berlin with an assessed valuation of $1,194,580 
received from the state alone, $1,518.37 for the tuition and trans- 
portation of 45 pupils who traveled an average distance of 5 
miles each. This was a greater sum than any of the above 
twenty-one towns used for all of its current high school expenses 
for the year. At the same time nine of these schools employed 
two or more teachers, six of them gave four-year courses, ten 
of them gave three-year courses, and nine of them were approved 



210 State Aid by Granting Subsidies 

by the state board. As to the number of pupils, two of these 
towns enrolled 56 and 57 respectively. 

The total expenditure for the education of the forty-five pupils 
in the town of Berlin amounted to $2,571.03. This amount 
would have been sufficient to employ two competent teachers at 
salaries equal to the average for high school teachers in the 
state; and the remainder, $890, would have been ample to meet 
all other necessary expenses. The expenditures for the same 
purpose in each of two other towns exceeded $2,000, enough 
to maintain a good high school. 

The amount of state aid indirectly received by the twenty-one 
high schools listed above has practically amounted to nothing, 
since the total sum received by these towns on account of tuition 
has not greatly exceeded 2 per cent of the total cost of 
maintenance. 

While reimbursed tuition has done much to extend secondary 
educational opportunities in this state, it has discriminated 
against such towns as have attempted to maintain high schools, 
and has discouraged the establishment of these schools in cer- 
tain other towns. It has undoubtedly aided some towns that 
should have been supporting high schools of their own, and it 
has failed to aid many poorer towns that have been struggling 
to do so. The state has used its funds to lift the burden from 
the shoulders of many that could have borne it themselves, and 
it has in part failed to lighten this burden where it rested most 
heavily. The net result has been that it has secured better 
educational opportunities for a certain number, but it has actu- 
ally kept such opportunities from being presented to others. 

It is scarcely necessary in closing this chapter to direct atten- 
tion to the fact that the sole intention has been to point out 
some of the weaknesses and failures attendant upon two of 
the most common methods of extending state aid to rural sec- 
ondary education. 

The following chapter will present the different schemes used 
by the various states in their attempts to equalize the financial 
burdens arising from the contemplated extension of secondary 
educational opportunities to the rural youth of the country. 
These schemes will be criticised and an attempt will be made 
to present the different factors that must be taken into con- 
sideration in any attempt to equalize the burdens and advan- 
tages of such education. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN AID OF SECONDARY 
EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES 

There are certain general methods employed by the various 
states in extending aid to rural secondary education. The most 
common of these is that of paying certain sums of money direct 
to the various local communities supporting high schools. An- 
other common method is that of directly or indirectly paying the 
whole or a part of the tuition fees of pupils residing in poor 
towns not supporting high schools. A third method employed 
is that of reimbursing towns not supporting high schools for a 
part of the expense incurred by the free transportation of sec- 
ondary pupils to and from non-local high schools. In addition 
to these special methods most of the states aid secondary educa- 
tion in the same manner and to the same extent as elementary 
education. 

Since the main purpose of this work has been to set forth 
the different legislative schemes employed by the various states 
in attempting to secure an extension of secondary educational 
opportunities to a larger number of the rural youth of the coun- 
try, and since this matter, as already presented, is too scattered 
to enable the reader readily to grasp the extent to which each 
of the various methods are employed, it will be necessary to 
assemble the facts and place them in a more convenient form 
before proceeding with the discussion of the merits of the vari- 
ous plans in operation. 

Only such matter will be presented in these outlines as refers 
to special state aid to secondary education. This matter will 
be arranged in three groups. The first of these will include 
such states as provide for special aid only through the granting 
of subsidies to high schools. The second will include the states 
that provide such aid only through the payments of tuitions. 
The third group will include such states as employ both 
methods. 



2 i2 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

GROUP I 

The States That Provide Special Aid to Secondary Education 
Only by Granting Subsidies to High Schools 

Minnesota. 

i. Provides $1,500 for each four-year high school. 

a. The general appropriations not quite sufficient to meet 

the need. 

b. But seven schools may receive aid in any one county, 

the last established being preferred. 

2. Provides $750 additional for such schools as maintain normal 

departments. 

3. Provides $550 for state graded schools, which may do one, 

two, or three years of high school work. 

4. Provides a complete system of inspection for these schools. 

5. Provides that these schools shall be free to non-resident pupils. 

California. 

1. Raises by taxation $15.00 for each pupil in average daily 

attendance upon all high schools the preceding year. 

2. Apportions one-third of this amount equally among all the 

high schools of the state. 

3. Apportions two-thirds upon the basis of average daily attend- 

ance in these schools. 

4. Requires each school to give a four-year course, and after 

the first year to employ two teachers. 

5. Requires that any such school shall submit to inspection by 

the university authorities. 

6. Provided in 1904, $543.93 on account of equal distribution, 

and $11.18 per pupil on account of attendance. In 1905 
the first item dropped to $502.68, and the second to $8.51. 

7. Provides that the tuition fee in any high school shall not 

exceed the per capita cost of the same to the local com- 
munity. 

Wisconsin. 

1. Provides one-half the cost of instruction in each township 
high school. 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 213 

2. Provides one-half the cost of instruction, — but not to exceed 

$500 in each case, — in district, town, or city high schools, 
a. The general appropriations have never been quite suf- 
ficient to meet the need. 

3. Provides one-half the cost of instruction, — but not to exceed 

$250 in each case, — in manual training departments in high 
schools. 

4. Provides two-thirds of the cost of maintenance, — but not to 

exceed $4,000 in each case, — in county agricultural schools. 

5. Provides for thorough inspection of all of these schools. 

North Dakota. 

1. Provides $300 for each high school giving a two-year course. 

2. Provides $500 for each high school giving a three-year course. 

3. Provides $800 for each high school giving a four-year course. 

4. Has not always provided sufficient general funds to meet the 

needs. 

5. Provides for inspection by State Superintendent. 

Pennsylvania. 

1. Provides $400 for each high school giving a two-year course. 

2. Provides $600 for each high school giving a three-year course. 

3. Provides $800 for each high school giving a four-year course. 

4. Has never provided sufficient funds to meet the needs. 

5. Does not provide for state inspection. 

Washington. 

1. Provides that each union high school may receive an appor- 

tionment of state school moneys upon a basis of at least 
two thousand days attendance. 

2. Provides $100 for each high school grade maintained. 

3. Provided to each of these schools, in 1906, amounts ranging 

from $272 to $1,334. 

Florida. 

1. Provides $360 to such schools as give at least two-year courses. 

2. Provides $600 to such schools as give four-year courses. 

3. Does not provide adequate inspection. 



2i4 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

Virginia. 

I. Provides that if a local community will raise at least $250 
annually, the state will annually appropriate an equal 
amount, but not to exceed $400 to any one such district. 

South Carolina. 

1. Provides that any local community maintaining a high school, 
may receive from the state an amount equal to one-half 
of the amount raised locally, but not to exceed $1,200. 

Alabama. 

1. Provides that such counties as establish and maintain high 
schools may receive from the state $2,000 annually. 

GROUP II 

The States That Provide Special Aid to Secondary Education 
Only by Providing for Tuition 

New Hampshire. 

1. Requires that towns not maintaining high schools must pay 

the tuition of all of their secondary pupils. 

2. Provides that such towns with a school tax of 3.5 mills or 

more, and with a general tax of 16.5 mills or more, may 
be reimbursed to the extent of 10 to 100 per cent of the 
amounts expended for tuition. 

3. Provides that such of the above towns as have a general rate 

that does not exceed 16.5 mills by more than .99 of a mill, 
may receive 10 per cent of the amount expended, and such 
others as have a general rate that does not exceed 16.5 
mills by more than 1.99 mills, may receive 20 per cent of 
the amount expended, etc. 

Vermont. 

1. Requires that all towns must maintain high schools or pro- 

vide free tuition. 

2. Provides that the state will reimburse certain of these towns 

in amounts bearing a certain relation to the proportion of 
the general tax levy that is applied to education. 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 215 

Delaware. 

1. Provides $15.00 annually for the payment of the tuition of 
each high school pupil in attendance from a district that 
does not maintain such school. 

Connecticut. 

1. Requires that all towns not maintaining high schools must 

provide free tuition. 

2. Provides for the reimbursement of these towns for tuition 

paid, but not to exceed $30.00 annually upon the account 
of any one pupil. 

3. Permits any town to provide free transportation for secondary 

pupils. 

4. Provides for the reimbursement of these towns in an amount 

equal to one-half the amount so expended, but not to exceed 
$20 annually upon the account of any one pupil. 

GROUP III 

The States That Provide Special Aid to Secondary Education 
by Both Granting Subsidies and Reimbursing Tuitions 

Maine. 

1. Provides one-half the cost of instruction in high schools, — 

but not to exceed $250 in any case. 

2. Provides that only two such schools may receive aid in any 

one town; and the two taken together may only receive 
$250. 

3. Provides subsidies to certain academies by special acts. 

4. Requires all towns not maintaining high schools to provide 

free tuition, which must not exceed $30.00 annually per 
pupil. 

5. Provides for the reimbursement of these towns to the extent 

of one-half of amount so expended, — but in no case to 
exceed $250 per annum. 

Massachusetts. 

1. Requires all towns with more than 500 families to maintain 
high schools. 



2 i6 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

2. Provides $500 to such towns of less than 500 families as 

maintain high schools.* 

a. Requires such schools to employ at least two teachers. 

3. Requires such towns as do not maintain high schools to pro- 

vide free tuition. 

4. Reimburses such of these towns as have an evaluation of less 

than $750,000 in an amount equal to that of such tuition.* 

5. Reimburses those having an evaluation of $750,000 or more, 

in an amount equal to one-half the amount so expended* 

New York. 

1. Provides $100 to each academic department. 

2. Provides for each high school department an amount equal 

to the amount locally raised for books, pictures, apparatus, 
etc., — but not to exceed $268 annually. 

3. Provides for each nonsectarian academy an amount equal to 

the amount locally raised for books, pictures, apparatus, etc., 
— but not to exceed $250 annually. 

4. Provides $2.00 for each teacher employed in academic de- 

partments. 

5. Provides for a certain apportionment upon aggregate days' 

attendance. 

6. Provides to a school of forty pupils upon all the above 

accounts an average of about $325 annually. 

7. Provides free tuition to pupils coming from districts having 

no academic departments of their own. 

8. Provides that the amount of such tuition, — except in the larger 

cities, — shall not exceel $20.00 per pupil, and that the state 
shall pay the whole of this amount. 

Rhode Island. 

1. Provides $20.00 for each of the first 25 resident pupils in 

average daily attendance upon a township high school, and 
$10.00 for each of the second 25 pupils. 

2. Provides that towns not maintaining high schools may receive 

aid upon the same basis for such of their pupils as attend 
non-local high schools. 



*No town may receive aid upon either of the above accounts if its 
evaluation averages a larger sum for each pupil in the average member- 
ship of its public school than the corresponding average for the state. 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 217 

North Carolina. 

1. Provides that if a local community will raise at least $250 

annually, the state will annually appropriate an equal 
amount, — but not to exceed $500, — to any one such district. 

2. Provides that, if any county shall furnish free tuition, the 

state will reimburse it to the extent of one-half the amount 
expended for the purpose, — but not in an amount in excess 
of $500. 

As indicated in the above outline there appears to be in prac- 
tice but two general plans of extending special state aid to sec- 
ondary education, — namely, that of paying state subsidies to high 
schools, and that of directly or indirectly paying tuitions. The 
purpose of state aid, whether it be extended by the former or 
the latter method, is to increase secondary educational oppor- 
tunities in rural communities. Such increase may be in the direc- 
tion of bettering existing opportunities, or in that of extending 
the same to a larger number of the rural youth. The different 
schemes adopted by the several states have worked to conserve 
these two interests in varying degrees; but they have not, as a 
rule, been properly adjusted to the conditions and needs of the 
various commonwealths wherein they operate. 

In general reimbursed tuition and reimbursed transportation 
work to increase the efficiency of existing schools, and do not, 
upon the whole, tend to increase the number of high schools. 
On the other hand, the direct subsidy scheme, unless strictly 
conditioned, tends to increase the number of such schools. If, 
then, state subsidies are granted without restriction to the poorer 
districts, the net result will be the extension of secondary educa- 
tional opportunities to many more rural youth. If, on the other 
hand, unrestricted tuition payments are made to the towns not 
supporting high schools, the result will be that secondary edu- 
cational opportunities of a superior quality will be extended to 
a certain class of the rural youth, while many others will still 
lack such opportunities. In most instances, however, the grant- 
ing of special state subsidies is conditioned by certain require- 
ments of efficiency; and these requirements are in some cases 
so high when compared with the amount of the state subsidies, 
that they affect only slightly the spread of high schools. 



2 i8 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

It is not within the purpose here, to attempt to establish 
theoretically the function of the state in regard to the financing 
of secondary education in rural communities. Practically, as 
shown by the above summaries, nineteen of the states were, at 
the time of this investigation, extending such aid. This, and 
the fact that several of these states have been doing so for more 
than thirty years, are sufficient to show that such a policy is at 
least deemed expedient. 

The question as to whether the state, in extending this aid, 
aims to better the secondary educational opportunities of a 
certain group of the rural youth, or whether it aims mainly to 
extend such opportunities to the larger number, is of vital im- 
portance in the discussion to follow. However much the state 
may interest itself in the better preparation of leaders, the fact 
remains that a democracy ceases to be such when it consciously 
aims at limiting opportunity. Theoretically, then, the state 
should, if it extends aid to secondary education at all, aim as 
nearly as possible to equalize universally secondary educational 
opportunities. This implies, first, and primarily, the extension, 
if possible, of such opportunities to all the youth of the com- 
monwealth; and second, the improvement of the poorer of these 
opportunities. All of which in turn implies that the state should 
aim, first, to have if possible, a high school created in each 
community that furnishes a sufficient number of pupils ; second, 
to provide for free tuition for all pupils residing in districts not 
supporting high schools ; and third, to equalize as far as possible 
the opportunities offered by these schools. 

A careful study of the legislation in aid of rural secondary 
education in the various states, together with that of the attitude 
taken by the supporters and creators of such legislation, will 
clearly show that the general views held have been approximately 
the above, and that the laws created have been directed mainly 
to securing these ends. The restrictive requirements placed upon 
all such schools as receive state aid are largely intended to hinder 
the misuse of the state funds. Where the qualifications have 
been placed too high, or where the method employed in the 
distribution of such aid has been faulty, inexperience and lack 
of statistical information have been the cause. 

The main purpose of the state in reimbursing tuitions is, then, 
to extend educational opportunities to all youth not residing in 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 219 

districts maintaining high schools, and not primarily to increase 
the efficiency of existing high schools. Since this method alone 
is practiced in certain states, and since it does not, under certain 
conditions, work well in conjunction with the subsidy plan, 1 
it will be necessary to point out its advantages and limitations. 
The main weakness of the free tuition scheme is that, while it 
may and does provide educational opportunities for a large pro- 
portion of the youth of a given district, it cannot provide such 
opportunity for all, because there are other limiting factors, — 
such as cost of transportation, time lost in travel, and the neces- 
sity of being away from home, — which hinder some from taking 
advantage of the opportunity offered. A local institution also 
gradually exerts a psychological influence which results in in- 
creasing the number of secondary pupils in the community. 
The extent to which a local institution will influence the number 
of secondary pupils in a given community, has been statistically 
worked out in Massachusetts by J. W. Macdonald ; and the result 
of the study has been printed in the Report of the State Board 
of Education. A quotation from this report will throw some 
light upon the method pursued in the investigation, and also 
upon the result of the study and its probable validity. 

" The towns of the state having a population of 3,500, or less 
(three or four larger), were divided into two classes: (a) those 
that maintained local high schools with four-year courses; and 
(b) those that sent their pupils to outside high schools. In the 
table below, in parallel columns, I have shown by counties the 
town in each of these classes that furnished the highest, and 
the one that furnished the lowest, per cent of high school pupils 
to population and also the average of them all for the county. 
Suffolk and Nantucket counties, for obvious reasons, are omitted ; 
and also in some of the counties a few towns that pursue a 
middle policy, — that is, maintain a local school for the first year 
or two of high school work. 

" It should be noted that a much larger proportion of the 
towns which maintain their own high schools than of the others 
are manufacturing towns, that have a considerable part of their 
population drawn from nationalities that as a rule furnish few 
high school pupils. Ludlow and Hardwick are examples. Each 



! See chapter XIII. 



220 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

high school town, too, is credited with only its own pupils ; all 
outside pupils attending the school are credited to their own 
towns. 

" Making allowance for variations from year to year, it will 
appear that only about three-fifths as many pupils will go to 
an outside high school as would attend a local school." 2 

In order to check up the work, the author of the above made 
the same calculations for the succeeding year, with practically 
the same results. The above conclusion of the author is ap- 
parently very conservative. This together with the fact that 
he was in a position to know the influence of the factor of 
selection upon his results, would lead one to accept the con- 
clusion as a perfectly safe generalization. If, then, a local school 
will cause a given community to increase its high school pupils 
60 to 70 per cent, it is evident that free tuition alone cannot 
bring about the end sought by the state in aiding secondary 
education. The provision of free transportation reimbursed or 
local, will, in a measure, decrease the above percentage, but it 
cannot entirely equalize the opportunities. It will, then, be neces- 
sary to turn either to the state subsidy scheme, or to a com- 
bination of all these schemes. 

The subsidy scheme may alone solve the problem for such of 
the poorer towns as have pupils enough to create a high school, 
but it cannot help such towns as do not have the requisite num- 
ber of pupils, — unless such towns as receive the subsidy are 
required to admit non-local pupils free of tuition. This scheme 
would, however, only tend to transfer the burden to certain of 
the districts of the state that could not well bear it. A certain 
subsidy might be granted to each school upon the number of 
such non-resident pupils in attendance; but this would only be 
an indirect method of paying tuition. The disadvantage of such 
a scheme would be that it would fail to take into consideration 
the financial duties and abilities of the towns sending such 
pupils. It seems, then, that the most equitable and efficient 
method of securing the end in view, will be to combine all three 
of the schemes. But it has been shown already 3 that the com- 
bination of any two of these methods in such a manner as to 
work with equity and efficiency is a difficult task, because of 

J Rep't of the State Board of Edu., Mass., 1903-4, pp. 222-4. 
Chapter XIII. 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 221 

the unequal conditions existing in the various local communities. 
This situation involves the necessity of stating, as far as pos- 
sible, the conditions under which any one of these schemes should 
be put into operation, and also some of the factors that would 
be involved in any adequate solution of the problem as to what 
extent aid should be provided and by what method it could be 
most equitably apportioned. 

Dr. Cubberley, in his work entitled, " School Funds and Their 
Apportionment" has shown that certain of the poorer rural com- 
munities cannot possibly maintain efficient elementary schools 
without state aid. He demonstrates the necessity for a large 
state fund apportioned in such a manner as to insure that each 
local community, rich or poor, may offer reasonably good edu- 
cational opportunities to the young. Accepting this conclusion 
as being correct, the question immediately arises as to whether 
the high schools in rural communities should be aided in the same 
manner and to the same extent only as the elementary schools. 
If the state has adopted the policy of equalizing, as far as pos- 
sible, secondary educational opportunities, the only answer to the 
question is, that it must sooner or later provide sufficient funds 
and apportion them to the various poorer communities in such 
a manner as to enable them to maintain efficient high schools or 
to provide secondary educational opportunities in neighboring 
high schools. Due to the fact that the per capita cost of sec- 
ondary is much greater than that of elementary education, and 
due to the further fact that the local communities are in many 
instances already overtaxing themselves to maintain elementary 
schools, it will be necessary for the state to provide a much 
larger amount per capita for secondary than for elementary 
education. It will also be necessary that these funds shall be 
apportioned in such a manner as to conserve best the interests 
of all the established rural high schools of the state. 

Under no condition, however, should the state, at the present 
time, entirely and permanently lift the entire burden of main- 
taining secondary education from the shoulders of the local com- 
munities, because a financial responsibility upon the part of the 
community creates an added interest in the institution. If the 
burden of supporting the elementary schools properly is too 
heavy in certain towns, the state should lift a part of it, and 
thus permit the shifting of a measure of the local energy to the 



2 22 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

support of secondary education. The larger effort of the local 
community should still be permitted to apply to elementary edu- 
cation, if for no other reason, because the institution has a 
stronger hold upon the social mind. It is a commonly recog- 
nized fact that the favorable social attitude towards free public 
education decreases both in extent and intensity just as the type 
of school under consideration advances in grade. This is par- 
ticularly true in rural communities, and at present entails the 
necessity for greater effort upon the part of the state towards 
higher education. 

The first factor which enters into the question as to whether 
the local community should have a high school, is that of the 
number of pupils of secondary grade in the community. The 
usual minimum enrollment for a four-year high school receiving 
state aid is commonly placed at twenty-five, though California re- 
quires an average daily attendance of only twenty. Assuming 
that the policy is to secure reasonably good secondary educational 
opportunities to as many youth as possible, and bearing in mind 
the fact that normally 60 to 70 per cent more pupils will attend 
a local high school, the state should aim to provide that each 
local community having a yearly average of twenty-five pupils, 
may be enabled to maintain a four-year high school course of 
its own. In order to secure the desired end the state should, 
where necessary, provide by special subsidy sufficient aid to 
enable any community to support a high school with a term 
of one, two, three, or four years, provided that there is a suf- 
ficient number of pupils in any one of these grades to warrant 
its existence. The advantages to be gained in permitting the 
establishment of these partial high school courses are, first, that 
more pupils will secure at least a partial secondary education, 
and second, that many of these schools will ultimately grow into 
four-year schools. Of course there may be certain conditions 
that would make it undesirable for such communities to main- 
tain independent high schools, — where for instance a city high 
school is located near, and rapid transportation to and from such 
school is possible, or where the pupils of a local community 
are distributed in groups that are each nearer to different neigh- 
boring high schools than they would be to a local institution. 

All schools receiving special state aid should be required to 
meet certain conditions of efficiency, such as the offering of 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 223 

certain minimum courses for each grade, the employment of at 
least one regular teacher for each two-year school, and the 
employment of at least two teachers for each three or four-year 
school. Special supervisors or at least special inspectors should 
be employed to see that such requirements are fulfilled, and to 
aid in developing the efficiency of the schools. 

To sum up, the special subsidy scheme should be employed 
where needed by the state in order to enable each local com- 
munity that can furnish the necessary pupils to constitute a high 
school of either one, two, three, or four years, to maintain 
such an institution. 

All communities should be required to provide free tuition 
in such high school grades as they do not maintain at home, 
and also free transportation for such of their pupils as are in 
attendance upon neighboring high schools. The state should 
provide for the reimbursement of the poorer of these towns 
upon both of these accounts, but it should in no case reimburse 
them to the full extent of the expenditure. Further, any town 
having within its borders a yearly average number of pupils 
sufficient to constitute a four-year high school, and not having 
a high school located as conveniently for these pupils as a local 
one might be, should receive no aid from the state whatever, 
upon account of either tuition or transportation. 

Having confined the three schemes of providing state aid to 
secondary education to their proper spheres, it will now be neces- 
sary to state briefly the factors which must be taken into con- 
sideration in equitably apportioning the state aid to the local 
communities. In case the burden of supporting the elementary 
schools has already been equalized by the proper distribution of 
an adequate state fund, the only factors that need to be taken 
into consideration in the distribution of a state high school fund 
are, the length of the course offered, the number of pupils in 
average daily attendance, and the assessed valuation. If, how- 
ever, the burdens attendant upon the maintenance of efficient 
elementary schools have not been properly adjusted, both the 
general and school tax rates will have to be taken into con- 
sideration. Then only will it be possible to divide the money 
in such a manner as to conserve the best interests of the state 
and of the various communities. Provided that the elementary 
school problem is properly adjusted, some scheme similar to 



224 The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 

the following would probably work with greater equity and 
efficiency than any now in operation. 

For the purposes of apportionment the schools should be 
classified according to the number of grades maintained. It 
would probably be best to create but two general classes, namely, 
two-year and four-year schools, — these schools to employ at least 
one and two teachers each respectively. Each should be re- 
quired to maintain a certain minimum average daily attendance. 
If the average daily attendance upon the upper grades in these 
schools should, for two years in succession, fall below a certain 
number, such grades should be abolished. Each school should, 
if necessary, be permitted to receive, for one year, aid as a 
two-year school, while maintaining but one grade with a certain 
minimum enrollment. The second year it should be required to 
maintain two grades. Any school already having received aid 
as a two-year school should, — if it provided a three-year course, 
with a certain minimum enrollment in the third year, — be per- 
mitted to receive aid as a four-year school for one year. After 
this it should be required to maintain a four-year course in 
order to receive aid in this class. 

The state aid should be apportioned to these schools, first, 
upon the basis of class as modified by the evaluation of the 
community, and second, upon the basis of the attendance of 
pupils. 

The amount of subsidy paid to each school of the two-year 
class should be estimated by subtracting from a certain general 
minimum amount; — estimated by adding the yearly salary of 
one teacher, a certain amount for incidental expenditures, and 
the annual rental for one school room ; — the income arising from 
a certain definite millage levied upon the assessed valuation of 
the local community. The second apportionment should be made 
by paying to each school a certain small definite amount for 
each pupil in average daily attendance beyond the minimum 
number required to constitute such school. 

The amount of subsidy paid to each school of the four-year 
class should be estimated by subtracting from a certain general 
minimum amount; — estimated by adding the yearly salaries of 
two teachers, a certain amount for incidental expenditures, and 
the annual rental for two school rooms; — the income arising 
from a certain definite millage (the same as above) levied upon 



The Various Methods Employed in Aid of Education 225 

the assessed valuation of the local community. The second ap- 
portionment should be made by paying to each school a certain 
small definite amount for each pupil in average daily attendance 
beyond the minimum number required to constitute such school. 

The reason for making the apportionment upon attendance 
small is, that up to a certain limit, the addition of pupils would 
cause but slight added expense, and that the aim of such appor- 
tionment is largely to interest the local authorities in keeping up 
the attendance. If it were found to be necessary, the same 
scheme could be extended to include a third teacher. 

Communities not having within their borders a sufficient num- 
ber of pupils to warrant the establishment of high schools, should 
receive from the state the amounts necessarily expended for both 
tuition and transportation less the incomes arising from a certain 
definite millage (the same as above) levied upon their assessed 
valuation. 

In order to secure the best results from the application of 
any such scheme as the above, it would be necessary to make pro- 
vision for a union of districts with the free transportation of 
pupils. In this case a subsidy sufficient to meet the expense of 
transportation could be added. 

Since the expenditure upon these various accounts adjusts 
itself automatically, the provision for raising the necessary funds 
should also be adjusted in such a manner as to work auto- 
matically. This could be effected, after the first two or three 
years of experience, by adding to the expenditure for the preced- 
ing year a certain percentage for increase and raising the whole 
of the increase by a state tax. 



VITA 

Edwin Reagan Snyder, born September 2, 1872, Scottdale 
Pennsylvania. B. Ped., Colorado State Normal School, Greeley 
Colorado, 1895. A. B., Leland Stanford Junior University, 1905 
Principal of Public Schools, Baldmountain, Colorado, 1895-7 
Principal of Public Schools, New Windsor, Colorado, 1897-1900, 
Supervisor of Manual Training, Alameda, California, 1900-2 
Head of Department of Industrial Arts, State Normal School 
San Jose, California, 1902-7. Assistant in Education, Leland 
Stanford Junior University, 1904-5. Research Scholar, Teachers 
College, Columbia University, 1907-8. Fellow, Teachers College, 
1908-9. 



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